THE 


HdHii  1  TQ  Fo 
VJ  U  O  I.,,/ 

CLARK 


THE   CARE   OF   A    HOUSE 


THE  CARE  OF  A  HOUSE 

A  VOLUME   OF  SUGGESTIONS 

TO  HOUSEHOLDERS,  HOUSEKEEPERS,  LANDLORDS, 

TENANTS,  TRUSTEES,  AND  OTHERS,  FOR  THE 

ECONOMICAL    AND    EFFICIENT    CARE 

OF  DWELLING-HOUSES 


BY 


T.    M.    CLARK, 

FELLOW  OF  THE  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE   OF  ARCHITECTS;    FELLOW 
OF  THE   SOCIETY  OF  ARTS,   LONDON 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 
1918 

All  right* 


V 


c> 


COPYRIGHT,  1903, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.  Published  September,  1903.  Reprinted 
March,  1905  ;  January,  1909  ;  March,  1912  ;  August,  1914;  February, 
1917. 


NortoooB 

J.  8.  Cashing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PEEFACE 

CONSIDERING  the  importance  to  happy  family 
life  of  a  comfortable,  wholesome  dwelling,  and 
the  distress,  anxiety,  and  expense  often  caused 
by  defects  which,  if  understood  in  season, 
might  have  been  easily  remedied,  the  writer 
has  thought  that  a  simple  explanation  of  the 
structure  of  a  modern  house,  and  of  the  appli- 
ances which  are  attached  to  it,  with  descriptions 
of  the  disorders  to  which  they  are  subject,  and 
of  the  methods  of  preventing  and  curing  such 
disorders,  might  be  found  widely  useful ;  and 
he  trusts  that  this  little  book,  in  which  he  has 
collected,  to  the  best  of  his  ability,  such  infor- 
mation of  the  kind  as  is  most  frequently  needed 
in  families,  may  be  the  means  of  relieving  the 
anxieties  and  lightening  the  burdens  of  some, 
at  least,  of  the  householders  for  whose  benefit 
it  is  intended. 

22  CONGRESS  STREET,  BOSTON. 


401354 


CONTENTS 

MM 

I.    How  A  HOUSE  is  BUILT 1 

II.     THE  ROOF 13 

III.  CHIMNEYS  AND  FIREPLACES          ....  19 

IV.  STOVES  AND  FURNACES 28 

V.    THE  KITCHEN  STOVE 34 

VI.    FURNACES 48 

VII.    STEAM  AND  HOT-WATER  HEATING       ...  74 

VIII.    PLUMBING 92 

IX.    TROUBLES  WITH  PLUMBING,  AND  THEIR  REMEDY  139 
X.    GAS-PIPES  AND  GAS-FIXTURES       .        .        .        .188 

XL    ELECTRICAL  FIXTURES 198 

XII.    THE  CARE  OF  WOODWORK 209 

XIII.    KEEPING  A  HOUSE  IN  REPAIR      ....  258 

INDEX.                                                                                 .  279 


vn 


THE   CAEE   OF   A   HOUSE 

CHAPTER  I 

HOW   A   HOUSE  IS   BUILT 

NOTWITHSTANDING  all  that  is  said  about  the 
preference  of  Americans  for  hotel  life,  and  the 
multiplication  of  apartment-houses,  flats,  family 
hotels,  and  other  contrivances  for  leaving  a  por- 
tion of  the  housekeeping  troubles  to  the  janitor, 
the  disposition  toward  independent  home  life  in- 
creases in  this  country  every  day.  There  are  few 
tenants  of  apartment-houses  who  do  not  look 
forward  to  the  time  when  they  can  have  a  home 
of  their  own  ;  and  those  who  possess  that  bless- 
ing, however  much  they  may  repine  at  the  anxie- 
ties attending  it,  are  seldom  contented  to  give  it 
up  permanently.  It  may  be  assumed,  therefore, 
that  the  independent  dwelling  is  likely  to  continue 
to  be  favored  by  the  great  majority  of  American 
families ;  and,  in  view  of  the  complexity  of 
modern  houses,  it  seems  as  if  something  might 
be  done  to  lighten  the  burden  of  those  who  have 
the  care  of  them  by  a  simple  explanation  of  their 
construction,  and  of  the  principles  of  operation 
of  their  different  working  portions.  Nothing  is 
more  trying  to  the  nerves  than  to  have  to  deal 
B  i 


.THE^CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


with  troubles,  the  source  of  which  is  unknown  ; 
and  a  very  moderate  knowledge  of  the  general  con- 
struction of  a  house,  and  of  the  elements  of  heat- 
ing and  plumbing  apparatus,  would  relieve  many 
a  housekeeper  from  hours  of  exhausting  worry, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  saving  of  money  which  might 
often  be  made  through  the  indication  which  such 
knowledge  would  afford  of  the  source  of  any  of 
the  numerous  troubles  to  which  houses  are  sub- 
ject, and  of  the  nature  of  the  remedy  which  should 

be  applied. 

Most  houses 
in  North  Amer- 
ica are  built  of 
wood,  the  walls 
consisting  of  a 
frame  of  studs, 
or  light  timbers, 
set,  usually,  six- 
teen inches  apart 
from  centre  to 
centre,  and  cov- 
ered on  the  out- 
side with  rough 
boards,  which, 
in  their  turn,  are 
covered  with  clapboards,  or,  sometimes,  with 
shingles.  On  the  inside  of  the  studding  laths  are 
nailed,  and  covered  with  plaster  ;  and  the  interior 
partitions  are  made  with  similar  studding,  cov- 
ered on  both  sides  with  laths  and  plaster  (Fig.  1). 


FIG.  1. 


HOW   A   HOUSE   IS   BUILT  3 

The  studs  of  the  outside  walls  stand  on  a  heavy 
timber,  called  a  sill,  which  rests  on  the  top  of 
the  cellar  wall,  or,  where  there  is  no  cellar,  on  an 
underpinning  of  stone  or  brick,  or  on  stone  or 
brick  piers,  or  on  wooden  posts  ;  and  at  the  top 
of  the  walls  is  a  "  plate,"  or  horizontal  piece,  on 
which  rest  the  lower  ends  of  the  "  rafters,"  or 
roof  timbers.  The  rafters  are  usually  spaced 
from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  apart,  and 
are  covered  with  boards,  and  these  with  shingles. 
The  studs  of  the  main  interior  partitions  in  the 
first  story  usually  stand  on  "  girders,"  or  heavy 
timbers,  set  either  level  with  the  beams  of  the 
first  floor,  or  just  below  them,  and  supported  by 
brick  piers  in  the  cellar.  The  studs  of  inferior 
partitions,  which  carry  little  or  no  weight,  and 
of  partitions  in  upper  stories,  are  set  on  the 
floors,  and  openings  are  framed  in  both  outside 
and  inside  studding  for  doors  and  windows.  The 
floors  are  formed  with  beams,  or  planks  set  on 
edge,  usually  from  eight  to  ten  inches  deep,  and 
two  or  three  inches  thick,  set  most  commonly 
sixteen  inches  apart,  from  centre  to  centre,  and 
resting  on  the  sills,  girders,  and  main  studding 
of  the  house.  The  floor-boards  are  nailed  on  top 
of  the  beams,  and  the  under  side  is  usually  pre- 
pared for  plastering  by  nailing  on  "  furring  strips," 
these  being  long  strips  of  wood,  two  inches  wide, 
and  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  put  on  twelve 
inches  apart.  The  laths  are  nailed  to  these  fur- 
ring strips,  and  the  plaster  is  spread  on  the 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


laths.  It  is  obvious  that  the  floor-beams,  laid 
in  parallel  lines,  and  covered  with  boards  above, 
and  with  a  sheet  of  plastering  underneath,  will 
form  a  succession  of  hollow  spaces  (Fig.  2)  of  the 
same  depth  as  the  beams,  and  thirteen  or  fourteen 
inches  wide ;  and  these  spaces  are  utilized  by 

buildersforcon- 
taining  hot-air 
pipes  from  fur- 
naces,    plumb- 
ers'    pipes, 
gas -pipes,  and 
electric    wires. 
It  is,  therefore, 
often    impor- 
tant,   in    trac- 
ing a  leak,  or 
on  other  occa- 
sions, to  know 
the      direction 
in    which    the 
floor  -  beams 
run.     This  can 
generally  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  direc- 
tion of  the  floor-boards,  which  usually,  although 
not  always,  run  at  right  angles   to   the  beams, 
as   shown   in    Figure    2.'     Where    there    is    any 
doubt  on  this  subject,  further  evidence  may  be 
derived  from  observation  of  the  ceiling  beneath. 
Most  ceilings,   particularly  over  a  chandelier,  or 
steam  radiator,  or  register,  become  slightly  dis- 


FIG.  2. 


HOW   A   HOUSE   IS  BUILT  5 

colored  by  smoke  and  dust.  As  plastering  is 
very  porous,  air,  impregnated  with  these  im- 
purities, passes  easily  through  it,  and  the  im- 
purities are  filtered  out,  staining  the  plaster.  As 
the  air  cannot  penetrate  the  laths,  transmission 
takes  place  mostly  between  them,  so  that  the 
spaces  between  the  laths  are  marked  on  the  ceil- 
ing by  a  narrow  dark  line,  the  plastering  just 
over  the  laths  remaining  white.  The  furring 
strips,  to  which  the  laths  are  nailed,  appear  as 
broader  streaks  of  white  at  right  angles  to  those 
indicating  the  laths ;  and,  as  the  furring  strips 
must  be  nailed  at  right  angles  with  the  beams, 
the  laths  will  be  parallel  with  the  beams,  and  the 
direction  of  the  latter  will  thus  be  shown.  In 
very  cheap  houses  there  are  sometimes  no  furring 
strips,  and  the  strips  are  often  omitted  on  base- 
ment ceilings.  In  this  case  the  laths  will  run  at 
right  angles  with  the  beams,  instead  of  being 
parallel  with  them  ;  but  the  two  cases  can  usually 
be  distinguished  by  measuring  the  distance  be- 
tween the  wider  white  streaks  which  indicate 
furring  strips  or  beams.  If  the  streaks  are 
twelve  inches  apart  from  centre  to  centre,  they 
show,  in  all  probability,  furring  strips,  and  the 
laths  run  parallel  with  the  beams ;  if  they  are 
sixteen  inches  or  more  from  centre  to  centre, 
they  probably  indicate  beams,  and  in  this  case 
the  laths  run  transversely  to  them.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  floor-boards  will  confirm  these  indica- 
tions, which  are  often  of  great  importance. 


6  THE   CARE   OF  A  HOUSE 

city  houses.  City  houses  are  constructed  in  very  much  the 
same  manner  as  country  houses,  with  stud  parti- 
tions and  wooden  beams;  but  the  beams  rest  at 
their  outer  end  on  brick  walls  instead  of  studding. 

structural  This  structure,  of  beams,  studs,  rafters,  and 
stone  or  brick  walls,  is  liable  to  various  kinds  of 
deterioration,  and  the  symptoms  of  such  deteri- 
oration should  be  known,  in  order  that  the 
disease  which  they  indicate  may  be  treated  be- 
fore it  becomes  serious.  In  a  brick  house  set- 
tlements of  the  walls  may  take  place,  due,  usually, 
to  inadequate  foundation.  Such  settlements  are 
indicated  by  cracks,  the  direction  of  which  is,  as 
a  rule,  approximately  at  right  angles  with  the 
direction  of  the  settlement ;  so  that,  by  drawing 
lines  perpendicular  to  the  general  direction  of 
the  cracks,  the  position  of  the  yielding  portion  of 
the  foundation  can  generally  be  found,  and  the 
trouble  remedied  in  such  manner  as  circumstances 
may  require. 

In  a  wooden  house,  the  weight  of  which  is 
trifling  in  comparison  with  that  of  a  brick  one, 
settlements,  which  will  show  themselves  by 
cracks  in  the  interior  plastering,  rather  than  by 
dislocations  of  the  outside  clapboards  or  shingles, 
are  less  likely  to  proceed  from  the  failure  of  the 
foundation  than  from  rotting  or  shrinkage  of  the 
timbers,  or  from  their  insufficient  strength. 
Settlement  from  rotting  of  timbers  occurs  most 
commonly  in  old  houses,  and  manifests  itself 
first,  as  a  rule,  in  the  outside  walls,  the  studs  of 


HOW  A  HOUSE  IS  BUILT  7 

which  stand  on  the  sill.  As  the  sill  rests  on  the 
stone  or  brick  underpinning,  which  is  often 
damp,  particularly  in  old  houses,  where  the 
ground  outside  is  frequently  graded  up  so  high 
as  to  cover  the  underpinning,  and  even  portions 
of  the  sill,  the  latt<^  soon  begins  to  rot  on  the 
under  side  ;  and,  when  the  disease  has  progressed 
far  enough,  the  timber  slowly  gives  way.  When 
this  happens,  the  studs  resting  on  the  decaying 
timber  sink,  and  the  disorder  is  betrayed  by  the 
cracking  of  the  plastering  incident  to  the  move- 
ment. In  building  new  houses,  the  rotting  of 
the  sill  can  be  postponed  for  many  years  by 
painting  the  under  side  with  a  coat  of  any  cheap 
paint  which  will  repel  the  dampness  of  the  stone 
or  brickwork  on  which  it  rests  ;  but  in  old  houses, 
where  it  has  already  occurred,  the  remedy  is  to  cut 
out  the  old  sill,  or  such  portions  of  it  as  may  be 
decayed,  and  put  in  fresh  timber,  which  can  be 
done  with  little  difficulty  if  settlement  has  not 
progressed  too  far. 

Defects  due  to  shrinkage  show  themselves,  in  Shrinkage, 
general,  within  two  years  after  the  completion 
of  the  house,  when  the  timber  has  been  dried  by 
the  furnace  fires  or  steam  heat  of  one  or  two 
winters.  As  all  wooden  houses  are  now  framed 
with  green  timber,  a  shrinkage  of  at  least  a  third 
of  an  inch  must  be  expected  in  every  floor  tim- 
ber of  average  depth ;  and  where  a  girder  rests 
on  piers,  and  floor-beams  on  the  girder,  the  com- 
bined shrinkage  of  the  girder  and  the  beam  may 


8  THE  CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 

be  two-thirds  of  an  inch.  If,  then,  as  often  hap- 
pens, a  partition  is  secured  at  one  end  to  the 
framing  of  an  outside  wall,  which  shrinks  very 
little,  if  at  all,  and  is  supported  at  the  other  end 
by  a  beam,  resting  on  a  girder,  and  exposed  to  the 
dry  air  of  the  house,  this  enr1  will,  by  the  shrink- 
age of  the  beam  and  girder,  settle  half  an  inch  or 
more,  distorting  the  openings,  causing  the  doors 
to  bind,  and  cracking  the  plastering. 

Where  beams,  girders,  and  stud  partitions  are 
superposed  through  several  stories,  the  shrinkage 
accumulates,  so  that  cracks  in  plastering,  and 
other  marks  of  settlement,  are  always  worst  in  the 
upper  story  of  a  house.  A  skilful  architect  can 
frame  a  house  so  as  nearly  to  eliminate  settle- 
ment from  shrinkage,  or,  at  least,  to  make  it  uni- 
form, so  as  not  to  distort  the  partitions ;  but,  if 
this  has  not  been  provided  for  in  the  original  con- 
struction, no  remedy  can  be  applied.  Fortunately, 
settlement  from  shrinkage  reaches  its  limit  in  a  few 
years,  and  the  cracks  can  then  be  stopped  up. 
Weakness  Settlement  from  weakness  of  timbers  is  a 
much  more  serious  affair.  It  can  usually  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  bending  of  floors,  or  ceilings,  or 
girders,  at  the  weak  point ;  and,  unless  checked, 
will  continue  to  increase  indefinitely.  The  only 
remedy  is  the  application  of  supports  to  relieve 
the  overstrained  beams  or  girders  ;  and  these  sup- 
ports may  take  the  form  of  additional  piers  under 
girders,  or  extra  timbers,  braces,  or  arches  under 
floor-beams ;  but  they  should  be  applied  at  once. 


HOW   A   HOUSE   IS   BUILT 


Apart  from  the  dislocations  proceeding  from  Defects  in 
settlement,  all  houses  with  wooden  floor-beams  l 
and  partitions  are  liable  to  cracks  in  the  plaster- 
ing due  to  other  causes.     The   most   serious  of 
these   come   from   the   deterioration,  or   original 
bad  quality,  of   the   plastering   itself.     In   most 
houses  the   plaster   is   spread   on  wooden   laths, 
about  one   and   a   half  inches  wide,  and    three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  nailed  to  the  studding 
or  furring  strips,  with  a  space   between   them, 
which  should  be  three-eighths  of  an  inch  wide, 
or  just  the  thickness  of  an  ordinary  lath.     The 
mortar  for  the  first  coat  of  plastering  on  laths  is 
mixed  with  hair, 
or,  occasionally, 
with  wood  fibre. 
When      applied 
to  the  laths,  and 
pressed    against 
them    by    trow- 
elling,   the    soft 
mortar  is  forced 

through  the  spaces  between  them  (Fig.  3),  and 
bends  over,  forming,  when  hard,  hooks,  or  "  keys," 
or  "clinches."  The  mortar,  after  drying,  does 
not  adhere  to  the  laths,  and  the  keys  or  clinches 
are  all  that  holds  the  sheet  of  plastering  in 
place ;  and,  as  the  plastering  mortar,  when  dry, 
is  brittle,  even  that  would  be  insufficient  if  it 
were  not  for  the  hair  or  other  fibre  mixed  in  it 
to  give  it  the  necessary  tenacity.  Inferior  plas- 


FIG.  3. 


10  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

terers,  to  save  the  mortar  which  forms  the 
clinches,  put  on  the  laths  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
apart,  or  even  less.  The  trowelling  then  fails  to 
push  the  soft  mortar  through  the  space  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  bend  over,  and  much  less 
mortar  is  used ;  but  the  result  is  that  the  wall 
or  ceiling,  when  finished,  has  little  or  nothing 
to  hold  it  to  the  laths,  and  when  these  dry  and 
shrink,  as  they  soon  do,  the  plastering  separates 
from  them,  bulging  out  from  walls,  or  "bag- 
ging" down  from  ceilings.  Even  where  the 
plastering  was  originally  good,  the  shaking  inci- 
dent to  walking  or  running  over  the  floors 
above  will,  in  the  course  of  years,  break  off  the 
clinches  of  ceilings,  allowing  the  plastering  to 
separate  from  the  laths.  In  either  case  fine 
cracks  can  be  observed,  running  at  random  over 
the  ceiling,  and,  by  holding  a  straight  rod  under 
it,  the  plastering  can  be  seen  to  have  "  bagged  "  ; 
and,  by  pressing  it  with  the  hand,  or  with  a 
stick,  the  sheet  of  plaster,  which,  having  left  the 
laths,  is  supported  only  by  the  tenacity  of  the 
hair  in  it,  can  be  felt  to  yield.  A  plaster  ceiling 
which  has  left  the  laths  in  this  way  is  not  nec- 
essarily in  a  dangerous  condition.  If  originally 
well  made,  with  plenty  of  good  hair,  a  sheet  of 
plastering  mortar  of  considerable  extent  may 
hang  for  several  years  without  support  from  the 
laths ;  and,  as  the  breakage  of  the  clinches  goes 
on  progressively  over  a  ceiling,  it  may  be  a  long 
time  before  the  whole  is  affected.  When,  how- 


HOW   A   HOUSE   IS   BUILT 


11 


ever,  the  bulging  becomes  very  marked,  and  the 
bulged  portion  is  much  cracked,  it  is  liable  to 
fall,  and  should  be  taken  down,  the  old  mortar 
picked  out  of  the  spaces  between  the  laths,  and 
the  ceiling  replastered ;  or,  still  better,  the  old 
wooden  laths  taken  off,  and  the  ceiling  replas- 
tered on  metal  lath,  which  will  hold  the  mortar 
indefinitely. 

Another,  but  less  serious  cause  of  cracks  in 
plastering  is  the  shrinkage  of  the  laths.  The 
lathers,  to  save  themselves 
trouble,  often  change  the  di- 
rection of  a  few  laths  on  a 
wall  or  ceiling  (Fig.  4),  instead 
of  cutting  short  pieces,  and 
putting  them  on  parallel  to 
the  general  direction  of  the 
lathing.  Every  such  change 
of  direction  causes,  later,  a 
crack  in  the  plastering  over  it ; 
and  similar  cracks  are  com- 
mon at  the  corners  of  door 
openings,  where,  unless  special 
precautions  are  taken  in  lathing,  the  shrinkage 
of  the  heavy  studding  around  the  doors  affects 
the  plastering.  Still  other  cracks  are  often  seen 
in  the  plastering  around  chimneys,  due  to  the 
settlement  of  the  brickwork  of  the  chimney, 
which,  as  the  mortar  in  the  joints  dries  out,  settles 
slightly  away  from  the  wood  framing  around  it. 
A  diff erent  set  of  cracks  is  usually  to  be  observed 


FIG.  4. 


12  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

around  staircases,  which,  owing  to  the  peculiar 
character  of  their  framing,  settle  much  more  by 
the  drying  and  shrinkage  of  their  supporting 
timbers  than  the  work  about  them.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  plastering  in  attic  rooms,  where, 
owing  to  the  special  effect  of  shrinkage  on  the 
rafters,  and  other  members  of  the  roof-framing, 
cracks  are  almost  inevitable.  In  all  these  cases, 
however,  they  are  of  no  serious  consequence,  in- 
volving, at  most,  only  an  occasional  filling  with 
plaster  of  Paris. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE    KOOF 

As  the  plastering  of  walls  and  ceilings  usually 
gives,  by  cracking,  the  first  indication  of  settle- 
ment, shrinkage,  or  decay  in  a  house,  so  it  also 
commonly  reveals,  by  stains,  the  leaks  in  roofs, 
or  around  windows  and  skylights,  which  consti- 
tute, perhaps,  the  most  distressing,  because  most 
unaccountable,  troubles  of  the  householder.  The 
best  of  all  roofs  is  one  covered  with  the  plain 
"shingle"  tiles  so  universally  used  in  Europe.  Tile  roofs. 
For  the  American  climate,  with  its  violent  winds, 
drifting  snow-storms,  and  intense  frosts,  often  fol- 
lowing a  warm  rain,  the  tiles  should  be  hard- 
burned,  or  "  brown,"  as  they  are  called  in  Eng- 
land, and  laid  in  cement ;  and,  as  the  tiles  are 
heavy,  comparatively  strong  rafters  are  needed 
to  support  them ;  but  such  a  roof,  with  copper 
flashings  where  necessary,  will  often  endure  for 
centuries,  and  is  practically  fire-proof.  Slate  roofs,  Slate  roofs 
which  also  rank  as  fire-proof,  are  very  inferior  to 
those  covered  with  tiles.  The  slates  are  brittle, 
and,  as  they  are  nailed,  instead  of  being  hung, 
like  tiles,  to  strips  laid  on  the  roof,  it  is  difficult 
to  nail  them  tightly  enough  to  prevent  them  from 
shaking  in  high  winds,  and  breaking  off  at  the  nail 

13 


14 


THE   CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 


Flat  roofs. 


holes,  without  driving  the  nails  occasionally  a  lit- 
tle too  tightly,  and  breaking  the  slate  in  this  way. 
In  either  case,  a  slate  broken  at  a  nail  hole  causes 
a  leak,  and  there  are  few  slate  roofs  which  can 
endure  a  winter's  storms  without  some  breakage. 
Shingles  are  not  disposed  to  break  by  shaking  in 
the  wind,  or  by  being  nailed  too  tightly,  and  form, 
so  long  as  they  last,  a  much  better  roof  than 
slates ;  but  they  soon  rot  in  the  "  valleys,"  or 
angles  between  intersecting  portions  of  the  roof ; 
and  inferior  shingles  may  split  or  curl  in  the  sun, 
also  causing  leaks. 

Where  the  pitch,  or  angle  with  the  horizontal, 
of  any  roof  covered  with  shingles,  slates,  or  tiles 
is  too  low,  drifting  snow  will  blow  up  under 
them,  unless  they  are  laid  in  cement,  and  melt 
there,  often  causing  a  small  leak ;  and  the 
shingles  on  low-pitched  roofs  soon  rot  out  on 
account  of  the  slowness  with  which  rain-water 
drains  away  from  them.  The  minimum  pitch 
for  such  roofs  should  be  261  degrees,  or  "  quarter- 
pitch,"  as  the  carpenters  call  it,  the  rise  of  the 
roof  being  one-fourth  of  the  span,  and  a  higher 
pitch  is  much  to  be  preferred ;  and,  unless  the 
pitch  is  very  steep,  shingles,  or  slates,  or  tiles, 
should  be  put  on  over  two  layers  of  waterproof 
felt,  tacked  to  the  roof-boarding. 

For  covering  flat  roofs,  such  as  are  commonly 
found  in  city  houses,  and  often  in  those  in  the 
country,  copper,  tin,  or  composition  may  be  used. 
A  copper  roof  is  very  costly,  but,  if  not  injured 


THE   ROOF  15 

by  walking  over  it,  will  last  a  lifetime.  Tin 
roofs  do  well  inland,  but  are  not  very  durable 
near  the  sea,  and  they  must  be  kept  well  painted 
to  preserve  them.  Composition  roofs,  made  with 
tarred  felt,  in  two,  three,  four,  or  five  layers, 
mopped  with  melted  tar,  and  covered  with 
gravel,  are  cheap,  and  good  while  they  last,  and 
are  easily  renewed. 

It  is  obvious  that  neither  slates  nor  shingles  Flashings, 
will  fit  water-tight  against  each  other,  or  against 
chimneys  or  walls ;  and,  to  protect  junctions  of 
this  sort,  flashings  are  used,  consisting  of  strips 
or  pieces  of  lead,  zinc,  tin,  or  copper,  the  general 
principle  of  their  application  being  that  the 
lower  edge  laps  over  the  roofing,  so  as  to  throw 
rain-water  safely  away  from  the  joint,  while  the 
upper  edge  is  inserted  tightly  into  a  groove  in  the 
wall  or  chimney,  so  that  water  running  over 
the  surface  of  the  latter  will  continue  down  over 
the  metal,  and  will  be  thrown  out  upon  the  roof- 
ing ;  or,  in  the  case  of  flashings  in  valleys,  the 
strips  or  pieces  of  metal  are  so  arranged  as  to 
receive  the  rain-watei*  flowing  down  over  the 
slates  or  shingles  on  each  side  of  the  valley,  and 
conduct  it  to  the  gutter.  In  practice,  however, 
flashings,  to  save  metal,  are  usually  made  too 
narrow,  so  that  water,  in  heavy  rains,  overflows 
them,  and  runs  into  the  rooms  below.  In  the 
case  of  chimney  flashings,  the  metal  often  warps 
out  of  its  groove,  so  that  the  water  runs  down 
behind  it ;  and  zinc  or  tin  flashings  in  valleys  in 


16  THE   CARE   OF  A   HOUSE 

time  corrode,  and  allow  the  water  which  runs 
down  the  valley  in  storms  to  escape  into  the 
house,  causing  a  very  bad  leak. 

An  examination  of  the  wet  spot  in  the  plas- 
tering caused  by  a  leak  in  the  roof  will  generally 
indicate  the  source  of  the  trouble.  If  it  is  near 
a  chimney,  or,  in  a  city  house,  near  either  a 
chimney  or  a  brick  wall,  or  in  the  neighborhood 
of  a  skylight  or  scuttle,  it  is  probably  due  to 
defective  or  too  narrow  flashing  at  that  point. 
If,  in  a  house  with  a  pitch  roof,  w^ith  intersec- 
tions of  dormers  or  other  roofs,  it  appears  under 
a  valley,  it  is  probably  due  to  the  deficiency, 
corrosion,  or  displacement  of  the  valley  flashing, 
or  to  the  rotting  of  the  shingles  in  the  valley. 
If  the  roof  is  flat,  and  the  wet  spot  is  large,  and 
is  not  near  a  wall,  chimney,  or  skylight,  it  prob- 
ably comes  from  defects  in  the  roofing  itself, 
such  as  holes  in  a  tin  roof,  caused  by  corrosion, 
or  by  walking  over  it,  or  shovelling  snow  from 
it,  or,  in  a  composition  roof,  from  dry,  spongy 
places,  due  to  the  long-continued  action  of  the 
weather.  Such  leaks  in  tin  roofs  can  be  mended 
with  a  drop  of  solder.  Leaks  in  composition 
roofs  may  sometimes  be  patched,  but  roofing  of 
this  kind  does  not  often  show  defects  until  it  is 
so  extensively  decayed  as  to  need  entire  renewal. 

Minor  wet  spots  in  plastering  often  occur,  after 
heavy  rains,  from  other  causes  than  leaks  in  the 
roof.  Gutters  are  not  infrequently  so  arranged 
that,  if  choked  with  leaves  or  ice,  they  overflow 


THE  ROOF  17 

into  the  house ;  and  it  often  happens  in  winter 
that  snow  and  ice  freeze  to  the  lower  edge  of  a 
roof,  where  it  projects  beyond  the  walls,  and  is 
thus  out  of  reach  of  the  warm  air  of  the  house, 
and  the  border  of  ice  thus  formed  around  the 
roof  intercepts  the  water  descending  from  the 
melting  of  snow  lying  on  the  warmer  portions 
of  the  roof  above,  and  causes  it  to  back  up  under 
the  shingles  or  slates  until  it  finds  its  way  into 
the  inside  of  the  house.  Windows,  also,  in 
wooden  houses,  are  vulnerable  features,  and, 
unless  the  top  of  the  upper  outside  casing  is 
protected  with  sheet  lead,  as  it  always  should  be, 
but  often  is  not,  water  will  drive  in  during  heavy 
rains,  and  show  itself  inside  at  the  edges  of  the 
casings,  or  will  drip  through  the  top  of  the  frame, 
and  stain  the  curtains  and  shades ;  while  the 
rain-water  which  runs  over  the  glass,  collecting 
on  the  outer  sill,  will  often  blow  through  to  the 
inside,  staining  the  plastering  or  paper  beneath 
the  window. 

From  whatever  cause  they  proceed,  wet  spots  Repairs, 
in  plastering  indicate  defects  which  should  be 
attended  to  immediately,  to  prevent  further 
damage.  Flashings,  broken  slates,  and  rotten 
shingles  can  only  be  attended  to  by  a  roofer  or 
carpenter,  and  the  roofer  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose should  be  thoroughly  reliable,  as  it  is  a  com- 
mon trick  among  the  inferior  ones,  when  employed 
to  make  repairs,  to  loosen  sound  flashings,  or 
break  good  slates,  so  that  they  may  have  another 


18  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

job  when  the  next  rain-storm  comes.  The  tri- 
fling leaks  which  occur  around  windows  in  driv- 
ing storms  can  generally  be  cured  with  paint, 
mixed  thick,  and  pushed  into  the  crevices  with  a 
putty-knife,  or  with  thin  sheet  lead,  tacked  on 
where  necessary. 


CHAPTER  III 


CHIMNEYS    AND    FIREPLACES 

IF  the  roof  is  kept  tight,  and  the  walls  thor- 
oughly painted,  with  good  materials,  at  intervals 
not  too  long,  a  wooden  house 
should  not  give  much  trouble  by 
leakage,  but  the  fireplaces  and 
chimneys  will  often  cause  anxiety. 
All  houses  have  brick  chimneys, 
and  most  houses  have  also  brick 
fireplaces,  with  brick  hearths,  cov- 
ered with  tiling  or  not,  as  the  case 
may  be.  All  these  may  show  de- 
fects, and  the  chimney  above  the 
roof  is  sure  to  deteriorate,  by  the 
weathering  of  the  mortar,  which 
rapidly  decays  under  the  influence 

of  rain  and  frost.  If  the  chimney- 
stack  rises  high  above  the  roof, 
the  effect  of  the  weathering  will 
be  first  seen  in  the  bending  of  the 
stack  toward  the  quarter  from 
which  the  rains  come  (Fig.  5) ;  and, 
if  this  is  allowed  to  go  too  far, 
the  stack  may  fall.  If  the  chim- 
ney is  short  and  stout,  it  will  not  bend,  but  the 
upper  bricks  will  become  loose  (Fig.  6),  and  may 

19 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


20 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


Flues. 


Remedying 

defective 

flues. 


fall  down  the  flues,  causing  a  stoppage  which 
can  be  remedied  only  with  great  difficulty  ;  so 
that  all  chimneys  should  be  watched,  and  the 
upper  portion  rebuilt  as  soon  as  signs  of  decay 
appear.  As-  in  the  case  of  roofers,  only  thor- 
oughly trustworthy  masons  should  be  allowed  to 
touch  a  chimney,  and  any  portions  rebuilt  above 
the  roof  should  be  laid  in  clear  cement. 

Inside  the  house,  the  chimneys  and  fireplaces 
may  also  give  trouble.  The  old  practices  of  build- 
ing chimneys  on  the  floor-beams,  or  leading  them 
obliquely  around  a  house,  resting  on  pieces  of 
joist,  are  now  generally  abandoned,  and  a  modern 
chimney  usually  stands  erect  on  its  foundations, 
so  that  it  is  not  likely  to  crack  open  or  collapse ; 
but  the  flues  may  be  too  small,  or  otherwise  im- 
properly built,  and  give  annoyance  in  consequence. 
Open  fireplaces  require  large  flues,  at  least  8  x  12 
inches  for  a  fireplace  of  ordinary  size,  built  sepa- 
rately to  the  top.  If  they  are  smaller  than  this, 
or  if  they  are  contracted  at  the  top,  as  is  some- 
times done  in  pursuance  of  a  mistaken  theory,  or 
are  in  any  other  way  obstructed,  the  fireplaces 
will  smoke  ;  and  if  a  fireplace  flue  is  united  with 
another  flue  before  it  reaches  the  top  of  the  chim- 
ney, as  is  often  the  case  in  cheaply  built  houses, 
the  smoke  from  a  newly  built  fire  will  ascend  one 
of  the  flues  and  descend  the  other,  coming  out  in 
the  room  to  which  the  latter  belongs. 

It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  remedy  a  defective 
flue.  If  it  has  been  contracted  at  the  top,  this 


CHIMNEYS    AND    FIREPLACES  21 

portion  can  be  taken  off  arid  rebuilt  properly ; 
and,  occasionally,  a  partition  can  be  built  between 
two  flues  which  unite  only  at  the  top,  or  a  par- 
tition of  sheet  iron  can  be  inserted  ;  and  obstruc- 
tions in  the  flue  may  be  sounded  for  with  a  heavy 
iron  ball,  attached  to  a  string,  and,  if  the  trouble 
is  caused  by  loose  bricks  or  mortar,  caught  in  the 
flue,  they  may  often  be  dislodged  by  pounding 
them  with  the  ball. 

If  the  flue  is  hopelessly  too  small  for  an  open 
fireplace,  it  can  often  be  utilized  for  a  stove. 
Even  an  open  stove  will  work  well  with  a  much 
smaller  flue  than  would  be  required  for  a  fire- 
place, for  the  reason  that  the  smoke  and  gases 
from  a  stove  are  hotter  and  more  concentrated 
than  those  from  a  fireplace,  and,  in  consequence, 
ascend  more  rapidly  and  in  a  smaller  space.  A 
close  stove,  for  similar  reasons,  will  work  with  a 
flue  still  smaller  than  that  required  for  an  open 
one. 

Even  if  the  flue  is  properly  built,  large  enough  Down- 
and  high  enough,  it  may  be  exposed  to  down- 
draughts  from  neighboring  hills,  or  buildings,  or 
roofs,  or  even  trees.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  air  in 
motion  that  it  clings  tenaciously  to  the  surfaces 
over  which  it  passes,  following  their  irregularities  ; 
and  a  current  of  wind,  meeting  a  hill,  or  building, 
or  roof,  or  other  obstruction,  climbs  up  one  side 
of  it,  and  climbs  down  the  other ;  and,  if  the  top 
of  a  chimney-flue  happens  to  be  in  the  descend- 
ing current,  a  down-draught  will  be  caused  when- 


22  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

ever  the  wind  blows  from  the  obstruction  toward 
it.  A  defective  draught  in  a  chimney,  due  to 
this  cause,  can  be  distinguished  by  its  occurrence 
only  when  the  wind  blows  from  certain  direc- 
tions ;  and,  in  studying  phenomena  of  this  sort, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  a  high,  steep  hill  is 
capable  of  producing  down-draughts  in  chimneys 
a  mile  or  more  away.  Downward  currents  of 
this  sort  from  neighboring  hills  or  mountains  are 
not  easily  cured.  In  the  city  of  Geneva,  which 
lies  in  a  plain  between  two  ranges  of  steep  hills, 
down-draughts  are  so  prevalent  that  it  is  usual  to 
provide  each  flue  with  two  outlets,  turned  in 
different  directions,  so  that,  if  the  air  descends  on 
one  side  of  the  flue,  it  may  still  have  a  chance  to 
escape  on  the  other ;  and,  in  extreme  cases,  a  flue 
may  be  divided  by  a  long  strip  of  sheet  iron 
hung  in  it,  or  two  flues  may  be  appropriated  to 
the  same  fireplace,  each  division  having  its  own 
outlet,  so  that  the  downward  and  upward  current 
may  be  kept  from  mixing. 

In  most  cases,  however,  the  down-draughts  due 
to  obstructions  to  windward  of  a  chimney  may 
be  prevented  by  covering  the  top  of  the  flue  or 
chimney  with  a  semi-cylindrical  cap  of  brick  or 
metal,  having  its  axis  at  right  angles  with  the 
direction  from  which  the  downward  current 
reaches  it,  so  that  the  smoke  can  issue  from  the 
ends  of  the  cap  (Fig.  7).  The  chimney  should, 
even  with  this  precaution,  be  carried  up  as  high 
as  possible,  both  to  increase  the  natural  draught, 


CHIMNEYS   AND   FIREPLACES 


23 


FIG.  7. 


and  to  raise  its  outlet  into  a  stratum  where  the 
downward  current  is  less  marked  than  it  is 
nearer  the  ground.  If,  as  occa- 
sionally happens,  the  flue  is  un- 
necessarily large,  a  similar  effect 
can  be  obtained  by  contracting  it 
toward  the  upper  end,  so  as  to 
give  a  tapering  top  to  the  chim- 
ney. The  contraction  of  the  flue 
concentrates  the  smoke,  and  pre- 
vents it  from  being  mixed  by 
diffusion  with  cold  air  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  outlet ;  and  the 
tapering  sides  deflect  upward  the 
horizontal  currents  of  wind  which  strike  them, 
and  even  currents  slightly  descending,  so  that, 
instead  of  hindering  the  discharge  of  the  smoke, 
they  assist  it  (Fig.  8).  The  same  form  may  be 
given  to  the  top  of  a  chimney  without  diminish- 
ing the  size  of  the  flues  by  cutting  the  bricks,  and 
it  is  often  advantageous  to  do  so. 
A  trumpet-shaped  chimney-top, 
although  picturesque  and  "Eng- 
lish," is  objectionable,  often  caus- 
ing down-draughts  by  deflecting 
downward  the  currents  which 
strike  it. 

Even  if  a  fireplace  flue  is  prop-  Fireplaces, 
erly    built,    large    enough,    high 
enough,  and  not  exposed  to  downward  currents, 
the  fireplace  connected  with  it  may  still  smoke 


1         1 

1 

1 

1        I 

1 

1       1 

1 

1       1 

__^-s^~^x-^ 

Fia.  8. 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


FIG.  9. 


from  faulty  construction.  The  proper  form  is 
shown  in  plan  in  Figure  9,  and  in  section  in 
Figure  10.  The  sides  are  usually  bevelled,  for 

the  sake  of  ra- 
diating 


more 

heat  into  the 
room,  and  a 
portion  of  the 
back  is  made  to 
slope  forward 
for  the  same 
purpose.  The 
back  should  be 
drawn  forward  to  the  "throat,"  which  should 
be  a  mere  slit  not  more  than  two  inches  wide ; 
and  just  behind  the  throat  should 
be  a  level  shelf  about  six  inches 
above  the  top  of  the  fireplace 
opening.  The  narrowing  of  the 
throat,  into  which  the  flame  and 
smoke  are  directed  by  the  sloping 
back,  prevents  the  entrance  with 
them  into  the  flue  of  cold  air, 
which  would  chill  the  ascending 
gases  and  check  the 
draught ;  and  the  level 
shelf  behind  the  throat 
serves  to  repel  occa- 
sional downward  puffs 
of  air,  and  send  them  back  up  the  chimney,  in- 
stead of  deflecting  them  out  into  the  room,  as  a 


FIG.  10. 


CHIMNEYS   AND   FIREPLACES  25 

sloping   surface  in  that  position  would   do.     A 
fireplace  damper  serves  in  the  same  way  to  con-  Dampers, 
centrate  the  smoke  and  gases,  and,  if  properly 
made  and  placed,  improves  the  draught. 

Besides  being  properly  formed,  a  fireplace 
should  not  be  too  large  or  too  high.  If  the  open- 
ing is  more  than  thirty  inches  high,  whatever  its 
width,  smoke  is  likely  to  be  blown  out  into  the 
room  by  the  movement  of  persons  near  it ;  and  if 
short  pieces  of  wood  are  burned  in  a  wide  fire- 
place, or  if  a  portable  grate  for  coal  is  set  in  a 
fireplace  which  it  does  not  fill,  the  draught  is 
greatly  injured  by  the  cold  air  which  enters  the 
vacant  spaces  at  the  sides  of  the  burning  fuel  and 
mixes  with  the  smoke.  Trouble  from  this  cause 
may  be  easily  remedied  by  building  little  masses 
of  brick  at  the  sides  of  the  fireplace,  ten  or  twelve 
inches  high,  leaving  between  them  just  room  for 
the  grate,  or  for  the  wood  ordinarily  used ;  and, 
if  the  fireplace  opening  is  too  high,  a  copper  or 
brass  plate  may  be  fastened  over  it. 

A  good  fireplace  is  a  precious  possession  in  a  The  care  of 
house,  and  deserves  to  be  cared  for.  In  brick 
fireplaces  the  bricks  at  the  back,  where  most 
exposed  to  the  fire,  crack,  and  slowly  crumble 
away  ;  but  they  can  be  replaced  by  new  ones 
without  much  difficulty.  Iron  linings,  if  too 
thin,  are  apt  to  warp,  but,  if  they  have  been 
well  backed  up  with  bricks  and  mortar,  the 
warping  may  not  affect  the  usefulness  of  the 
fireplace.  Tile  linings  are,  as  a  rule,  meant  only 


26 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


for  show,  and  are  incapable  of  resisting  fire ; 
but  the  soapstone  linings  once  popular  are  quite 
durable. 

Hearths.  In  buildings  with  wooden  beams  the  hearth, 

through  the  shrinkage  of  the  floor-timbers  around 
it,  often  cracks.  If  the  hearth  has  been  prop- 
erly built  on  a  brick  trimmer  arch,  there  is 
little  danger  from  such  cracks,  as  a  spark  falling 
through  them  is  stopped  by  the  brick  arch  be- 
neath ;  but  they  are  unsightly,  and  alarming  to 
nervous  people,  and  it  is  safest  to  fill  them  with 
cement,  colored  to  match  the  hearth.  If  the  lat- 
ter is  of  brick,  or  of  red  tiles,  the  cement  may 
be  colored  with  Venetian  red ;  and  tiles  of  other 
colors,  or  marble,  may  be  imitated  in  the  same 
way. 

Diagnosis.  In  general,  if  a  fireplace  smokes,  a  diagnosis 
of  the  trouble  may  be  made  by  observing,  first, 
whether  the  smoking  is  intermittent  or  constant, 
and,  if  it  is  constant,  whether  it  tends  to  dimin- 
ish. If  intermittent,  it  is  probably  caused  by 
down-draughts,  which  may  be  treated  as  de- 
scribed above.  If  it  is  constant,  but  tends  to 
diminish,  it  may  be  due  to  the  dampness  of 
the  chimney.  A  flue  which  has  been  long  un- 
used, and  is  cold  and  damp,  chills  the  current 
through  it,  checking  the  draught  very  materially 
until  the  masonry  has  become  warm  and  dry ; 
so  that  it  should  not  be  condemned  until  it  has 
been  well  dried  out  by  burning  newspapers  in 
it,  or  by  keeping  up  the  fire  for  a  few  days.  If 


CHIMNEYS  AND   FIREPLACES  27 

this  fails  to  produce  improvement,  and  burning 
newspapers  show  that  the  chimney  draught  is 
good,  the  fault  is  probably  in  the  fireplace.  The 
chances  are  that  this  is  too  high.  The  surprising 
effect  produced,  in  quickening  a  fire,  by  simply 
holding  a  wide  board,  or  a  folded  newspaper, 
over  the  upper  part  of  the  fireplace  opening, 
affords  a  striking  lesson  upon  the  importance  of 
keeping  such  openings  low;  and  a  few  experi- 
ments of  this  sort  will  soon  show  how  much 
height  the  particular  fireplace  under  examina- 
tion will  bear. 


CHAPTER   IV 

STOVES    AND    FURNACES 

ALLIED  with  fireplaces,  but  still  more  im- 
portant in  their  relations  to  household  life,  are 
the  stoves  and  furnaces  with  which  every  house 
is  provided.  All  these  consist  essentially  of  an 
iron  fire-box,  under  which  is  a  grate,  made  with 
openings  large  enough  to  allow  ashes  to  fall 
through,  and  air,  for  sustaining  combustion,  to 
pass  in,  but  not  large  enough  to  allow  the  un- 
burnt  coal  to  escape.  The  smoke  and  flame 
from  the  fire-box,  after  describing  a  path  more 
or  less  circuitous,  are  drawn  off  through  an  iron 
smoke-pipe  into  the  chimney.  In  ordinary  air- 
tight heating  stoves  the  smoke  usually  passes 
directly  from  the  fire-box  into  the  chimney ; 
but,  in  order  to  increase  its  effect  in  warming 
the  room,  the  iron  pipe,  instead  of  entering  the 
chimney  by  the  shortest  path,  is  often  carried  up 
nearly  to  the  ceiling,  increasing  by  so  much  the 
heating  surface.  In  stoves  of  this  kind,  control 
over  the  fire  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  damper 
in  the  smoke-pipe,  and  two  slides,  one  in  the 
upper  door  of  the  stove,  through  which  coal  is 
put  on  the  fire,  and  the  other  in  the  lower  door, 
through  which  ashes  are  removed  from  the  ash- 

28 


STOVES   AND   FURNACES  29 

pit  below  the  grate.  To  increase  the  combustion 
the  upper  slide  is  closed,  and  the  lower  one 
opened ;  while,  to  check  the  fire,  the  lower  slide 
is  closed,  and  the  upper  one  opened.  The  reason 
why  opening  the  lower  slide  intensifies  the  fire 
is  that  air  is  thereby  admitted  through  the  grate 
to  the  burning  coal  above  it.  In  general,  com- 
bustion is  proportional  to  the  amount  of  oxygen 
which  reaches  the  fuel,  as  may  be  seen  by  blow- 
ing air  among  the  logs  of  a  wood  fire ;  but  the 
admission  of  air  to  the  fire  from  under  the  grate 
serves  an  additional  purpose,  in  that  the  heat 
from  the  quickened  combustion  of  the  lower 
layer  of  coal  rises  through  the  fresh  coal  above, 
causing  it  also  to  kindle.  If,  at  the  same  time, 
the  upper  slide  is  kept  closed,  the  air  which 
ascends  from  underneath  through  the  entire 
body  of  burning  coal  enters  the  chimney  in- 
tensely heated  ;  and,  as  the  upward  current  in  a 
chimney  of  given  dimensions  is  proportional  to 
the  temperature  of  the  smoke  and  heated  gases 
in  it,  a  strong  draught  is  thereby  established, 
which  increases  the  amount  of  air  drawn  through 
the  fire,  and  still  further  intensifies  combustion. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  upper  slide  is  opened, 
cold  air  is  drawn  in  above  the  fire,  and,  mixing 
with  the  hot  smoke  and  gases  from  the  fire, 
reduces  their  temperature  just  as  they  enter  the 
chimney,  and  proportionally  diminishes  the 
draught  in  the  chimney,  and,  in  consequence, 
the  rapidity  with  which  air  is  drawn  up  from 


30  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

below  through  the  fire.  The  powerful  effect  of 
opening  the  upper  slide  in  checking  the  fire  may 
be  understood  by-  supposing  the  upper  and  lower 
slide  to  be  of  the  same  size,  and  both  to  be  open 
at  the  same  time.  Assuming  the  current  of  air 
from  the  lower  slide  to  lose  half  its  velocity  in 
finding  its  way  among  the  coals  and  cinders  in 
the  burning  mass,  this  hot  current,  before  enter- 
ing the  chimney,  would  be  mixed  with  twice  its 
volume  of  cold  air  from  the  upper  slide,  and  the 
excess  of  temperature  over  that  of  the  external 
atmosphere,  to  which  the  draught  is  due,  would 
be  only  one-third  as  great  as  that  of  the  air  de- 
rived from  the  lower  slide  alone.  This  amounts 
to  cutting  off  two-thirds  of  the  draught  in  the 
chimney,  with  a  proportionate  reduction  in  the  in- 
tensity of  the  fire ;  and  if,  as  is  usual,  the  lower 
slide  is  closed,  at  the  same  time  that  the  upper 
one  is  opened,  the  combustion  is  further  reduced 
to  an  indefinite  extent,  as  it  is  then  maintained 
only  by  such  air  as  may  leak  in  through  the  joints 
of  the  door  and  slide  to  the  space  under  the  grate. 
With  stoves  of  the  simplest  kind,  the  damper  in 
the  smoke-pipe  may  be  wholly  or  partly  closed, 
to  reduce  the  volume  of  heated  air  passing  into 
the  chimney,  and  thereby  again  check  the  draught, 
and  the  combustion ;  but,  on  account  of  the  dan- 
ger of  driving  gas  into  the  room  if  the  smoke- 
pipe  is  completely  obstructed,  the  damper  is 
usually  made  with  a  notch,  or  hole,  sufficient  to 
carry  off  the  smoke  from  a  small  fire. 


STOVES   AND   FURNACES  31 

By  means  of  the  upper  and  lower  slides,  and 
the  damper  in  the  smoke-pipe,  very  extensive 
control  is  obtained  over  a  fire  in  a  closed  stove 
or  furnace,  and  the  same  principle  is  applied  to 
nearly  all  forms  of  heating  apparatus.  In  open 
stoves,  "  Baltimore  heaters,"  and  open  grates,  for 
either  hard  or  soft  coal,  the  place  of  the  upper 
slide  is  taken  by  a  "  blower,"  which  is  either 
entirely  removable,  or  is  attached,  in  the  shape 
of  a  "  curtain,"  which  slides  up  and  down.  So 
long  as  the  stove  or  grate  is  open,  an  immense 
quantity  of  cold  air  is  drawn  in  from  the  room 
over  the  fire,  which  mixes  with  the  smoke  and 
gases  before  they  enter  the  chimney,  chilling 
them,  and  proportionately  reducing  the  draught ; 
but,  by  putting  on  the  blower,  or  pulling  dowrn 
the  curtain,  the  current  of  cold  air  drawn  from 
the  room  above  the  fire  is  cut  off,  and  all  the 
air  drawn  intq  the  chimney  must  come  up  from 
below,  through  the  fire,  thus  quickening  the  com- 
bustion of  the  whole  mass  of  fuel  and  greatly 
increasing  the  draught  in  the  chimney.  With 
ordinary  grates,  wThere  there  is  no  way  of  con- 
trolling the  admission  of  air  below  the  fire,  the 
blower  can  only  be  kept  on  for  a  few  minutes 
without  danger  of  melting  the  grate ;  but  most 
open  stoves,  and  fireplace  heaters  of  the  Balti- 
more type,  have  a  movable  piece,  containing  a 
slide,  which  fits  closely  against  the  grate,  and, 
by  applying  this,  and  using  the  slide  for  control- 
ling the  admission  of  air  below,  the  blower  can 


32  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

be  kept  on,  and  the  apparatus  virtually  converted 
into  a  close  stove. 

Base-  Two  varieties  of  stoves  should  be  mentioned 

before  passing  to  more  complicated  apparatus ; 
these  being  the  base-burner  and  the  jacketed 
stove.  The  base-burner  differs  from  an  ordi- 
nary stove  simply  in  having  an  iron  cylinder 
set  in  the  upper  portion,  forming  a  reservoir  of 
coal,  which  can  be  filled  from  the  top.  As  the 
coal  in  the  fire-box  is  consumed,  a  fresh  supply 
descends  by  gravitation  from  the  reservoir,  so 
that  frequent  feeding  is  avoided ;  and,  as  the 
smoke-pipe  is  taken  from  the  fire-box,  outside  the 
coal-cylinder,  and  this  is  provided  with  an  iron 
cover,  there  is  no  danger  that  the  coal  in  it  will 
take  fire. 

Jacketed  The  jacketed  stove,  which  is  not  so  widely 

used  as  it  should  be,  consists,  substantially,  of 
an  ordinary  stove,  either  open  or  closed,  sur- 
rounded by  an  iron  casing,  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  walls  of  the  stove  proper.  The  feed- 
ing and  ash  doors  extend  to  the  outer  casing, 
and  an  ornamental  open  iron  top  usually  covers 
the  whole.  In  the  cheaper  forms,  which  are 
often  used  for  heating  country  schoolhouses,  the 
outer  casing  extends  only  to  within  three  or  four 
inches  of  the  floor,  so  that  air  is  drawn  in  below 
the  edge  of  the  casing,  and  rises  through  the  space 
between  the  casing  and  the  stove,  becoming  heated 
in  its  journey  by  contact  with  the  stove  on  one 
side  and  the  casing  on  the  other,  and  finally 


STOVES   AND   FURNACES  33 

escapes  through  the  openwork  of  the  top.  This 
circulation  of  air  adds  greatly  to  the  heating 
power  of  the  stove,  and  an  extemporaneous  cas- 
ing of  the  sort  may  often  be  placed  around  an 
ordinary  stove  with  advantage.  A  much  more 
perfect  arrangement,  however,  consists  in  sup- 
plying the  space  between  the  stove  and  the  cas- 
ing with  fresh  air  from  out  of  doors,  which  can 
be  brought  in  through  a  pipe,  warmed,  arid  dis- 
charged into  the  room  through  the  openwork 
top  of  the  stove,  giving  admirable  ventilation, 
which  is  still  further  improved  when,  as  is  the 
case  with  certain  sorts,  the  stove  itself  can  be 
used  as  an  open  stove,  drawing  in  the  warmed 
air,  after  it  has  made  the  circuit  of  the  room, 
and  thus  maintaining  a  constant  circulation. 
For  a  children's  nursery,  where  an  abundant 
supply  of  pure,  warm  air,  and  an  open  fire,  not 
only  for  its  cheerful  and  health-giving  radiation, 
but  for  drying  and  warming  clothing,  and  heat- 
ing saucepans,  are  absolute  essentials,  no  appara- 
tus ever  devised  approaches  these  stoves. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE    KITCHEN    STOVE 

THE  kitchen  stove  deserves  at  least  a  chapter 
to  itself,  for  even  a  volume  could  hardly  contain 
a  description  of  the  trials  which  housekeepers 
suffer  in  connection  with  it,  and  all  the  ingenious 
devices  which  have  been  invented  to  mitigate 
their  troubles.  It  is,  of  course,  in  America  that 
these  devices  are  principally  to  be  found,  for  the 
rest  of  the  world  is  far  behind  our  own  country 
in  the  details  of  domestic  convenience.  Even 
now,  many  a  lordly  family  in  the  most  aristo- 
cratic part  of  London  devours,  as  best  it  can,  its 
victuals  roasted  in  front  of  an  open  fire,  and 
bathes  itself  in  water  warmed  for  the  purpose 
over  a  gas  flame;  and  the  rest  of  the  world  is 
even  behind  England  in  the  comforts  to  which  the 
most  modest  American  family  is  accustomed. 

The  kitchen  stove,  like  other  stoves,  consists 
essentially  of  a  fire-box,  with  a  grate  underneath 
it,  and  an  outlet  to  the  chimney ;  but,  as  it  com- 
prises also  at  least  one  oven,  which  must  be 
heated,  the  smoke  and  hot  gases  from  the  fire-box, 
before  they  can  escape  into  the  chimney,  are 
made,  on  occasion,  to  pass  around  the  oven. 
Where  there  are  two  ovens,  two  smoke-pipes  are 

34 


THE   KITCHEN   STOVE  35 

provided,  each  of  which  draws  a  portion  of  the 
hot  gases  around  the  oven  to  which  it  belongs ; 
and  the  smoke-pipes  finally  unite,  just  before 
entering  the  chimney.  In  addition  to  heating  the 
ovens,  the  smoke  and  gases  in  an  American  stove 
are  obliged,  before  they  can  escape  from  their 
labors  into  the  chimney,  to  supply  hot  water  for 
the  baths,  sinks,  and  wash-trays  ;  to  maintain  the 
hot-closets  and  plate-warmers  at  a  suitable  tem- 
perature ;  to  dry  the  dish-towels ;  to  broil,  stew, 
fry,  boil,  and  simmer  all  the  family  aliments 
x  requiring  such  treatment,  and  often,  besides  this, 
to  boil  the  family  wash  and  cremate  the  family 
garbage.  To  do  all  these  things  with  one  small 
fire  requires  that  the  heat  should  be  well  utilized, 
and  the  fire  easily  controlled  ;  and  a  good  Ameri- 
can kitchen  stove  is  a  marvel  of  ingenuity.  In 
fact,  the  ingenuity  displayed  in  it  is  often  rather 
beyond  the  comprehension  of  those  who  use  it ; 
and  few  stoves  are  so  managed  as  to  get  from 
them  the  best  results  of  which  they  are  capable. 
The  fire-box  proper  of  the  ordinary  American 
kitchen  stove  is  made  oblong,  and  rather  deep,  so  as 
to  hold  a  good  body  of  coal ;  and  the  back,  which 
is  exposed  to  the  force  of  the  flame  passing  over 
the  ovens,  is  protected  by  a  fire-brick  lining.  The 
sides  and  front  are  protected  in  the  same  way, 
unless  the  stove  is  required  to  heat  water  for  the 
baths  and  plumbing.  In  this  case  the  front  fire- 
brick, and  often  the  side  linings  also,  are  replaced 
by  a  flattened  box  of  cast  iron,  known  as  the 


36  THE   CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 

Water-front,  water-front,  in  which  all  the  water  for  the  house 
is  heated.  Where  the  water-front  is  used,  holes 
are  provided  in  the  side  of  the  stove,  through 
which  pass  the  pipes  connecting  the  water-front 
with  the  copper  "  bath-boiler,"  or,  more  strictly, 
reservoir,  in  which  the  water  heated  in  the  stove 
is  stored  for  use.  In  most  cases  the  water-front 
is  a  simple  iron  box,  corrugated  a  little  on  the 
side  next  the  fire,  to  strengthen  it,  and  increase 
the  heating  surface  ;  but  the  water-fronts  of  some 
stoves  have  an  interior  longitudinal  diaphragm, 
which  keeps  the  inflowing  stream  of  cold  water 
from  mixing  with  the  outflowing  current  of  hot 
water,  and  materially  improves  the  capacity  of 
the  stove  for  heating  water ;  and,  occasionally, 
a  water-front  is  made  of  brass,  at  great  expense, 
under  the  erroneous  idea  that  water  can  be 
heated  more  rapidly  in  it  than  in  one  of  iron. 
Very  frequently,  in  modern  stoves,  the  water- 
front does  not  reach  the  top  of  the  fire-box,  but 
leaves  a  space,  two  inches  high  or  less,  above  it, 
through  which,  by  means  of  a  sliding  door  in  the 
front  of  the  stove,  a  broiler  or  toaster  can  be  in- 
serted above  the  fire  without  removing  the  stove 
covers,  and  a  piece  of  meat  thus  broiled  without 
allowing  the  smoke  to  escape  into  the  room  ;  and, 
occasionally,  in  large  stoves,  the  water-front  is 
put  at  the  back  of  the  fire-box,  leaving  the  front 
of  the  fire,  protected  only  by  a  grate,  exposed, 
so  that,  by  opening  doors  in  the  front  of  the  stove, 
a  chicken  or  duck,  secured  in  a  "  Dutch  oven  "  of 


THE  KITCHEN   STOVE  37 

bright  tin,  to  reflect  the  heat,  can  be  roasted  by 
direct  radiation  from  the  fire,  instead  of  being 
shut  up  in  the  regular  oven.  This  arrangement 
has,  however,  the  disadvantage  of  keeping  the 
front  of  the  stove  or  range  very  hot ;  and,  with 
modern  stoves,  in  which  air  is  allowed  access  to 
the  oven  while  roasting  or  baking  are  going  on, 
the  difference  in  flavor  of  meat  cooked  in  the  oven 
or  before  the  fire  is  mainly  imaginary. 

Under  the  fire-box  is  always  a  grate  of  some  Gratea 
sort,  and  in  this  feature  is  displayed  a  varied 
ingenuity  which  is  frequently  rather  wasted.  The 
best  grates,  for  anthracite  coal,  are,  perhaps,  those 
of  the  type  known  as  the  Smythe,  or  "  triangular- 
bar  "  grate,  which  is  composed  of  revolving  bars, 
set  with  flanges  of  a  form  nearly  triangular,  which 
interlock.  The  bars  are  furnished  at  the  end  with 
cog-wheels,  gearing  into  each  other,  so  that,  when 
one  is  turned,  the  others  turn  with  it,  but  in  op- 
posite directions ;  and,  by  means  of  a  handle, 
fitting  over  the  end  of  one  of  the  bars,  which 
projects  for  the  purpose  through  the  side  of  the 
stove,  the  different  sections  of  the  grate  can  be 
gently  rocked,  to  shake  out  fine  ashes,  or  turned 
entirely  over ;  the  triangular  flanges,  in  this  case, 
clutching  the  clinkers  and  cinders  above  them, 
and  depositing  them  in  the  ash-pan  below,  before 
they  resume  their  normal  position.  Although 
this  operation  is  not  an  extremely  complicated 
one,  it  is  too  much  for  the  intelligence  of  the  aver- 
age Biddy,  who  can  generally  be  seen,  in  the  early 


38  THE   CARE   OF  A   HOUSE 

morning,  digging  out  with  a  poker  from  the  fire- 
box, with  immense  labor,  and  distracting  noise, 
the  cinders  which,  by  a  single  turn  of  the  grate- 
handle,  might  be  transferred  safely  to  the  ash- 
pan.  With  this  form  of  grate  the  use  of  the 
poker  at  least  does  no  harm,  unless,  as  sometimes 
happens,  it  gets  caught  between  the  bars,  and 
injudicious  attempts  are  made  to  get  it  out 
again ;  but  the  same  can  hardly  be  said  of  an- 
other excellent  form  of  grate,  in  which  the  turn- 
ing of  the  shaking-handle  moves  up  and  down,  in 
alternation,  groups  of  small,  detached  grate-bars. 
When  used  intelligently,  this  is  a  very  satisfac- 
tory grate,  particularly  with  small  or  soft  coal ; 
but  the  process  of  digging  out  with  a  poker  a 
fire-box  furnished  with  it  has  the  inconvenience 
that  the  poker  not  unfrequently  brings  up  por- 
tions of  the  grate,  mingled  with  the  cinders,  and 
repairs  then  become  necessary. 

There  are  many  other  forms  of  improved  grate 
for  kitchen  stoves,  which  have  nearly  superseded 
the  ancient  plain  or  dumping  grate,  on  account 
of  their  efficiency,  in  intelligent  hands,  in  saving 
coal  and  labor.  With  a  grate  of  the  Smythe 
type,  if  care  is  taken  to  turn  the  bars  over  once, 
before  any  shaking  or  poking  is  done,  nothing 
will  be  removed  from  the  fire-box  but  the  layer  of 
clinkers  and  thoroughly  calcined  cinders  which 
collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  fire  ;  and,  if  the  fine 
ashes  are  then  removed  by  rocking  the  grate, 
without  turning  the  bars  over,  no  unburnt  or 


THE   KITCHEN   STOVE  39 

half-burnt  coal  need  reach  the  ash-pan,  and  the 
dusty  and  disagreeable  labor  of  sifting  out  the 
unburnt  coal  from  the  ashes  can  be  dispensed 
with. 

With  any  grate,  care  must  be  taken  to  remove 
the  ashes  from  the  pan  before  they  accumulate 
too  much.  If  the  heap  of  ashes  and  cinders 
reaches  the  bottom  of  the  grate,  or  even  ap- 
proaches very  near  it,  so  as  to  cut  off  the  access 
of  cool  air  to  the  under  side,  a  brisk  fire  is  likely 
to  melt  portions  of  the  grate-bars,  and  ruin  the 
grate ;  and,  for  a  somewhat  similar  reason,  the 
fine  ashes  which  collect  among  the  coals  should 
be  well  shaken  out  before  the  draughts  are 
opened  to  quicken  the  fire ;  otherwise  the  in- 
creased heat  will  melt  together  the  loose  particles 
of  ashes  and  form  clinkers,  which  not  only  adhere 
obstinately  to  the  fire-brick  linings,  and  to  the 
bars  of  grates  not  specially  designed  for  their 
easy  removal,  but,  by  filling  up  the  interstices  be- 
tween the  grate-bars,  cut  off  the  access  of  air, 
and  materially  check  the  fire. 

Even  if  the  grate  is  of  a  good  pattern,  and  the 
fire  is  kept  clear,  the  stove  may  not  work  well ; 
and  the  trouble  rr  •/  be  due  to  any  one  of  several 
causes.  The  priu^pal  one  of  these  is  likely  to  be 
insufficient  draught  in  the  chimney,  and  this  again  Bad 
may  have  various  reasons.  It  is  obvious  that  a 
considerable  force  is  necessary  to  draw  the  smoke 
and  hot  gases  from  the  fire-box  through  the  long 
journey  around  the  oven  ;  and  anything  that  in- 


40  THE   CAKE   OF   A   HOUSE 

terferes  with  the  chimney  draught  at  once  affects 
the  working  of  the  stove.  Very  often,  the  chim- 
ney itself  is  at  fault.  The  flue  may  be  too  small, 
or  choked  with  fallen  bricks,  or  exposed  to  down- 
draughts  from  neighboring  roofs,  or  buildings,  or 
trees,  or  hills ;  and  troubles  of  this  sort  may  be 
investigated  and  treated  as  described  in  the 
chapter  on  Chimneys  and  Fireplaces ;  but  the 
draught  of  kitchen  flues  is  frequently  affected  in 
other  ways.  Where  the  flue  is  of  good  size,  not 
less  than  eight  inches  square,  or,  better,  eight  by 
twelve  inches,  and  the  chimney  rises  well  above 
neighboring  roofs,  and  shows  no  evidence,  on  be- 
ing tested,  of  obstruction,  the  trouble,  if  the 
draught  is  defective,  should  be  sought  inside  the 
house,  and  will,  in  most  cases,  prove  to  proceed 
from  some  leakage  of  cold  air  into  the  flue.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  admission  of  a  very 
small  amount  of  cold  air,  to  mix  with  the  hot 
gases  in  the  flue,  will  chill  them  so  as  to  reduce 
materially  the  draught  of  the  chimney ;  and 
there  are  many  ways  in  which  cold  air  can  get 
into  a  kitchen  flue.  A  crack  in  the  oven,  for  ex- 
ample, or  imperfect  fitting  of  the  removable 
ovens  used  in  many  stoves,  or  a  cracked  top,  or 
broken  cover,  or  an  open  joint  in  the  smoke-pipe, 
will  admit  quite  enough  cold  air  to  affect  the 
draught ;  and,  where  no  defects  of  this  kind  are 
found,  a  diligent  search  will  often  discover  that 
an  ash-pit  door,  in  the  cellar  or  elsewhere,  com- 
municating directly  or  indirectly  with  the  kitchen 


THE   KITCHEN    STOVE  41 

flue,  has  been  left  open,  or  has  been  forced  open 
by  accumulation  of  rust ;  or  the  mason  who 
built  the  chimney  may,  instead  of  keeping  the 
kitchen  flue  entirely  separate  and  isolated  from  top 
to  bottom,  have  opened  it  at  the  lower  end  into  a 
general  ash-pit,  through  which  it  can  draw  air 
from  other  flues,  or  from  the  ash-dumps  of  fire- 
places. If  no  other  reason  can  be  found  for  the 
defective  draught,  something  of  this  kind  may  be 
suspected,  an  investigation  made  by  taking  out  a 
few  bricks  at  the  lower  end  of  the  flue,  and  the 
proper  measures  taken  to  shut  it  off  from  the 
ash-pit,  if  necessary. 

Besides  the  troubles  due  to  these  defects  or 
leakages,  the  draught  of  kitchen  flues  is  very 
often  injured  by  using  the  same  flue  for  another 
stove,  or  broiler,  or  similar  apparatus,  or  for 
ventilation.  It  is  very  common  to  see  the  lower 
end  of  a  kitchen  flue,  in  the  basement,  used  for 
a  laundry  stove  or  a  wash-boiler ;  or  a  laundry 
stove,  or  a  broiler,  set  in  the  kitchen,  beside  the 
kitchen  stove,  and  using  the  same  flue ;  or  a 
hood  may  often  be  seen,  placed  over  the  kitchen 
range,  to  collect  and  carry  off  the  smell  of  cook- 
ing, with  an  outlet  into  the  range-flue ;  or  the 
same  flue  may  be  used  for  stoves  in  the  cham- 
bers, or  to  receive  the  local  vents,  or  other 
ventilation  pipes,  from  bath-rooms  or  water- 
closets.  In  all  these  cases  the  draught  will  be 
more  or  less  affected.  If  the  kitchen  flue  is  of 
ample  size,  and  of  good  height,  an  air-tight  stove 


42  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

may  usually  be  connected  with  it  in  the  stories 
above  without  evil  consequences,  or  a  two-inch 
local  vent  from  a  water-closet  may  safely  be 
carried  into  it,  for  the  reason  that  either  of  these 
furnishes  a  comparatively  small  volume  of  cold 
air,  and  the  air  which  they  introduce  enters  the 
flue  far  above  the  kitchen  fire,  at  a  point  where 
the  smoke  and  hot  gases  from  the  latter  have 
already  received  their  first  impetus,  and  have 
begun  to  cool  of  themselves,  so  that  a  slight 
addition  of  cold  air  produces  less  effect;  but 
the  connection  of  a  large  ventilation  pipe,  or  of 
the  smoke-pipe  from  an  open  stove,  or  any  ad- 
mission whatever  of  air  into  the  flue  in  or  below 
the  kitchen,  is  very  injurious,  and,  if  separate 
flues  cannot  be  utilized  for  such  supplementary 
apparatus,  they  should  be  shut  off  entirely,  or, 
if  this  is  impracticable,  they  should  be  fitted 
with  tight  dampers,  to  be  opened  only  when 
the  extra  apparatus  is  in  use,  and  in  a  condi- 
tion to  contribute  hot  air,  instead  of  cold,  to  the 
flue. 

Even  where  no  cold  air  can  leak  into  the 
kitchen  flue,  the  draught  of  the  stove  may  be 
interfered  with  by  obstructions  in  the  stove 
itself.  As  the  smoke  and  heated  gases  from 
the  fire  circulate  around  the  oven,  they  carry 
with  them,  at  times,  fine  ashes,  which  fill  up 
the  narrow  spaces  between  the  shell  of  the  oven 
and  the  body  of  the  stove,  so  as  to  choke  the 
current.  All  stoves  have  provision  for  access  to 


THE   KITCHEN  STOVE  43 

these   spaces   for  cleaning,   and    they   should  be 
well  cleared  out  at  proper  intervals. 

Where  the  draught  of  a  kitchen  stove  is  un- 
satisfactory, without  being  affected,  apparently, 
by  any  of  the  conditions  mentioned  above,  it 
may  often  be  improved  by  carrying  the  iron 
smoke-pipe  of  the  stove  nearly  to  the  top  of  the 
room,  before  connecting  it  with  the  chimney, 
instead  of  making  the  connection  just  above 
the  stove.  Although  the  long,  vertical  smoke- 
pipe  contributes  to  the  uncomfortable  heating 
of  the  kitchen  in  warm  w^eather,  the  opportunity 
which  it  gives  to  the  hot  gases  to  gain  a  certain 
upward  impetus  before  entering  the  chimney 
often  enables  them  to  continue  their  journey 
properly  the  rest  of  the  way. 

Although  the  matter  is,  perhaps,  more  strictly  Heating 
connected   with   plumbing,    it    may   be   well    to  ^ 
consider    here    the     conditions    under    which    a 
kitchen  stove  is  most  efficient  in  heating  water 
by  means  of  the  water-front. 

The  principle  on  which  this  heating  is  effected 
is  that  of  circulation  of  the  water  from  the  bath- 
boiler  through  the  water-front,  or  the  coil  of 
copper  tubing  which  sometimes  takes  the  place 
of  the  water-front,  and  back  again;  and  this 
circulation  should  be  as  rapid  as  possible.  As 
hot  water  rises,  it  is,  or  should  be,  evident  that 
the  more  freely  it  can  rise,  the  more  rapidly  it 
will  do  so ;  and,  in  order  to  obtain  a  rapid  move- 
ment, not  only  should  the  brass  pipes  which 


44  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

connect  the  couplings  of  the  water-front  with 
those  on  the  boiler  be  large,  but  the  upper  pipe, 
which  carries  the  water  heated  by  the  fire  into 
the  boiler,  should  rise  somewhat  sharply  from  the 
stove  to  the  boiler.  If  it  rises  only  slightly,  or 
runs  for  a  part  of  its  course  nearly  level,  as  is 
often  the  case,  the  movement  of  the  hot  water 
through  it  will  be  sluggish ;  and,  when  the  cur- 
rent is  slow,  the  water  is  kept  too  long  exposed 
to  the  fire,  so  that  it  boils  or  simmers,  or  sends 
large  bubbles  of  steam  into  the  bath-boiler,  where 
they  are  suddenly  condensed,  with  a  thumping 
or  hammering  noise,  by  the  colder  water  there. 
In  either  case  a  great  deal  of  heat  is  uselessly 
absorbed  in  forming  steam  which,  with  a  better 
circulation,  would  serve  to  heat  the  water  quietly 
and  rapidly,  and  to  keep  the  upper  part  of  the 
boiler  well  filled  with  a  reserve  of  hot  water. 

The  direction  of  the  lower  pipe  between  the 
boiler  and  the  stove,  which  brings  the  cold  water 
from  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  to  the  stove  to 
be  heated,  is  not  so  important  as  that  of  the 
upper  pipe,  but  it  is  desirable  to  have  it  descend 
for  at  least  a  portion  of  the  way  from  the  lower 
coupling  of  the  stove  to  the  boiler.  If,  like  the 
pipe  from  the  upper  coupling,  the  lower  pipe 
ascends  toward  the  boiler,  or  is  laid  level,  some 
of  the  water  heated  in  the  water-front  will  try 
to  escape  through  it,  and  will  meet  the  incoming 
cold  current  on  the  way,  checking  the  general 
circulation.  Plumbers  usually  put  a  "  sediment 


THE   KITCHEN   STOVE  45 

cock"  on  the  lowest  point  of  the  cold-water  pipe 
between  the  boiler  and  the  water-front,  in  order 
to  drain  the  water  from  the  whole  hot-water 
system,  in  case  of  need ;  and  it  is  desirable  also 
on  this  account  to  have  the  pipe  descend  de- 
cidedly from  the  water-front,  in  order  that  the 
latter  may  be  completely  drained  when  necessary. 
If  the  pipes  between  the  water-front  and  the 
boiler  pass  behind  the  stove,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  or  are  carried  for  some  distance  on  the 
kitchen  wall,  they  will  probably  be  laid  for  a 
part  of  their  course  nearly  level,  for.  the  sake  of 
what  the  plumber  considers  to  be  neatness,  and 
the  circulation  will  not  only  be  slow  in  conse- 
quence, but  the  hot  water,  in  its  flow  through  a 
considerable  length  of  exposed  pipe,  will  lose 
some  of  its  heat,  particularly  at  night,  when  the 
kitchen  is  cold.  If  the  hot- water  supply  is 
scanty  from  this  cause,  the  upper  pipe  should 
be  changed  so  as  to  rise  directly  from  the  stove 
coupling  to  the  boiler.  The  lower  pipe  may  be 
left  level,  or  nearly  so,  if  it  would  be  trouble- 
some to  change  it ;  and  both  pipes  may  with 
advantage  be  wrapped  writh  asbestos  paper,  or 
some  other  non-conductor,  to  prevent  loss  of 
heat.  The  boiler  itself,  and  such  other  hot- 
water  pipes  as  can  be  reached,  may  be  wrapped 
in  the  same  way ;  and,  as  a  last  resort,  a  water- 
front with  a  diaphragm  may  sometimes  be  pro- 
cured, or  a  coil  of  pipe  substituted  for  the 
water-front.  Any  of  these  devices  will  to  a 


46  THE    CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

certain  extent  improve  the  hot-water  supply, 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  water  cannot 
be  heated  without  fire,  and  that  the  better  the 
circulation,  and  the  more  abundant  the  hot- 
water  supply,  the  more  coal  will  be  needed  to 
provide  for  the  other  duties  of  the  stove,  and 
the  stronger  the  draught  must  be,  as  a  rapid  cir- 
culation of  water  in  the  water-front,  almost  in 
contact  with  the  coal,  withdraws  heat  so  fast  as 
to  chill  the  fire  very  materially. 

Blowing  up  The  water-front  of  the  kitchen  stove  is  often 
fronts.6*"  an  object  of  apprehension  to  housekeepers,  who 
imagine  that  it  has  a  mysterious  propensity  to 
"  blow  up  "  on  various  pretexts,  but  more  partic- 
ularly when  the  water  is  drawn  off  from  the 
boiler  and  a  fire  is  made  in  the  stove  before  the 
water  is  turned  on  again.  Although  it  is  not 
advisable  to  make  a  fire  in  a  kitchen  stove  when 
the  water-front  is  empty,  on  account  of  the  prob- 
ability that  the  iron  shell  of  the  water-front  will 
be  warped  or  cracked  by  the  heat,  or  the  coup- 
lings injured,  it  may  be  reassuring  to  know  that 
there  seems  to  be  no  authentic  account  of  the 
"  blowing  up  "  of  a  water-front  from  the  sudden 
admission  of  water  to  it  when  heated.  That 
the  water-front  would  be  very  likely  to  crack 
under  such  circumstances  is  true,  and  a  great 
deal  of  steam  would  be  generated,  and  probably 
find  its  way  into  the  kitchen ;  but  anything  like 
a  dangerous  explosion  is  hardly  to  be  feared. 
The  contrary  is  the  case,  however,  where  a  fire 


THE   KITCHEN   STOVE  47 

is  made  in  the  kitchen  stove  when  the  pipes  lead- 
ing from  the  water-front  are  frozen ;  and  many 
an  unfortunate  servant  has  been  killed,  and  many 
a  kitchen  wrecked,  by  the  terrific  explosion  which 
is  sure  to  follow  carelessness  in  this  respect.  If 
there  is  any  reason  to  suppose  that  these  pipes, 
or,  in  fact,  any  of  the  pipes  of  the  hot-water 
system,  are  frozen,  a  very  small  fire  should  be 
made  at  first,  just  sufficient  to  thaw  the  water- 
front and  the  pipes,  if  they  need  it.  If  they  are 
clear  of  ice,  the  warm  water  will  in  a  very  few 
minutes  be  felt  flowing  through  the  upper  pipe 
from  the  stove  to  the  boiler,  and  the  fire  may 
then  be  cautiously  increased  ;  but  it  is  very  dan- 
gerous to  make  a  fire  hot  enough  to  generate 
steam  in  the  water-front  while  the  upper  pipe 
leading  from  it  remains  cold,  or  until  water 
flows  freely  from  the  hot-water  faucets  in  the 
house. 


CHAPTER   VI 

FURNACES 

NEXT  to  the  kitchen  stove,  the  furnace  pre- 
sents the  most  troublesome  problems  to  the 
housekeeper ;  and,  in  fact,  most  housekeepers 
abandon  at  once  problems  connected  with  the 
furnace,  imagining  that  they  can  be  dealt  with 
only  by  experts.  In  reality,  however,  a  furnace 
is  a  comparatively  simple  contrivance ;  and,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  bigger,  is  no  more  difficult  to  man- 
age than  a  stove. 

Very  many  ladies  suppose  that  the  hot-air 
registers  in  a  furnace-heated  house  communicate 
with  the  fire-box,  just  as  the  smoke-pipe  does, 
and  fortify  their  opinion  by  observing  that,  when 
a  new  fire  is  kindled,  smoke  comes  up  the  regis- 
ters, and,  when  the  furnace  is  shaken,  fine  ashes 
often  make  their  appearance  through  the  same 
openings.  This  impression  of  the  construction 
of  a  furnace  is  very  erroneous.  Briefly  described, 
every  furnace  is  simply  a  large  stove,  surrounded 
by  a  casing,  exactly  like  the  jacketed  stoves 
described  in  a  preceding  chapter,  the  fire  being 
contained  in  the  interior  portion,  while  the  air 
which  is  to  be  warmed  and  distributed  through 
the  house  passes  up  through  the  space  between 

48 


FURNACES  49 

the  inner  portion,  or  furnace  proper,  and  the  gal- 
vanized iron  or  brick  casing,  but  without  com- 
municating with  the  inner,  or  stove  portion,  in 
any  way.  It  is  true  that  smoke  and  fine  ashes 
do  often  come  up  through  the  registers ;  but,  un- 
less the  inner  portion  of  the  furnace  is  cracked 
or  disjointed  in  some  way,  they  do  not  pass  from 
it  into  the  warm-air  pipes  directly,  but  are  drawn 
from  the  cellar,  into  which  they  escape  when  the 
furnace  doors  are  opened,  through  the  leaks  which 
generally  exist  in  the  conduits  supplying  fresh 
air.  Under  the  old-fashioned  practice,  by  which 
the  fresh-air  supply  to  the  furnace  was  taken  en- 
tirely from  the  cellar,  not  only  smoke  and  ashes, 
but  coal-dust,  mould-spores,  and  aromas  of  va- 
rious descriptions  were  warmed  up,  and  poured, 
all  winter  long,  through  the  registers  into  the 
rooms.  Now,  however,  nearly  all  furnaces  are 
supplied  with  fresh  air  from  out  of  doors  through 
a  "  cold-air  box,"  or  conduit,  of  wood  or  gal  van-  Cold-air 
ized  iron,  or,  occasionally,  of  earthenware  pipe,  box' 
which  leads  from  a  cellar  window,  or  other  open- 
ing, either  to  the  side  of  the  furnace,  or  to  a  pit 
beneath  it,  so  that  the  fresh  air  which  comes 
through  it  can  rise  between  the  inner  portion  of 
the  furnace  and  the  casing  to  the  registers  above. 
If  the  cold-air  conduit  were  always  tight,  no  dust 
or  smoke  could  get  into  it  from  the  cellar,  but 
it  is  usually  furnished  with  a  door,  opening  into 
the  cellar,  for  cleaning,  or  for  taking  air  from  the 
cellar  in  extremely  cold  weather,  when  the  power 


50  THE   CARE   OF  .A   HOUSE 

of  the  furnace  is  inadequate  to  the  task  of  rais- 
ing the  fresh-air  supply  from  the  exterior  tem- 
perature to  that  required  for  the  rooms ;  and,  as 
this  door  is  never  quite  air-tight,  smoke  and  fine 
dust  are  drawn  through  the  crevices,  and,  enter- 
ing there  the  current  of  fresh  air,  reach  the  reg- 
isters. Many  cold-air  boxes,  also,  are  made  of 
wood,  the  sides  consisting  simply  of  matched 
boards  ;  and  the  dry  air  of  the  cellar  soon  causes 
these  boards  to  shrink,  opening  innumerable  small 
crevices,  through  which  dust,  smoke,  and  gas  can 
reach  the  rooms. 

Although  the  principle  of  construction  is  the 
same  for  all  hot-air  furnaces,  there  is  great  variety 
in  its  application.  The  simplest  furnace  consists 
of  an  iron  "  fire-pot,"  usually,  in  this  type,  lined 
with  fire-brick,  to  prevent  the  iron  from  cracking 
with  the  heat  of  the  fire,  and  surmounted  by  a 
"  drum,"  or  cylinder  with  a  closed  top,  usually  of 
wrought  iron.  The  fire-pot  has  a  grate  of  some 
sort  at  the  bottom,  and  under  this  is  the  ash-pit ; 
and  a  door  is  fitted  in  the  drum,  above  the  fire- 
pot,  for  feeding  the  furnace  with  coal,  and  an- 
other in  the  ash-pit,  under  the  grate,  for  removing 
ashes  ;  while  a  galvanized  iron  smoke-pipe  carries 
the  smoke  and  heated  gases  from  the  upper  part 
of  the  drum  to  the  chimney.  The  fire-pot,  drum, 
and  ash-pit  are  enclosed  by  the  casing,  which  is 
simply  a  galvanized  iron  cylinder,  with  a  closed 
top,  of  a  diameter  some  inches  greater  than  that 
of  the  drum  ;  and  the  feeding  and  ash  doors  are 


FURNACES  51 

extended  so  as  to  reach  to  the  outside  of  the 
casing,  the  smoke-pipe,  of  course,  passing  through 
the  latter  on  its  way  to  the  chimney.  From  the 
top  of  the  casing  proceed  the  tin  pipes  which 
lead  the  air  admitted  from  the  cold-air  box,  and 
warmed  by  its  passage  past  the  fire-pot  and  the 
drum,  to  the  registers  in  the  rooms.  With  a 
slide  in  the  feeding-door  and  ash-door,  to  regulate 
the  supply  of  air  above  and  below  the  grate,  and 
a  damper  in  the  smoke-pipe,  to  give  still  further 
control,  the  apparatus  is,  in  all  essentials,  com- 
plete ;  and  many  such  furnaces  are  sold,  and  give 
satisfaction  under  suitable  circumstances. 

A  furnace  of  this  kind  cannot,  however,  be 
advantageously  used  to  supply  a  large  number 
of  registers.  It  is  a  principle  of  the  art  of  heat- 
ing that  air  can  be  warmed  only  by  actual  con- 
tact with  a  heated  surface ;  and,  as  the  fire-pot 
and  drum  of  such  a  furnace  present  a  compara- 
tively small  surface,  the  air  which  can  be  made 
to  come  into  actual  contact  with  them  on  its 
passage  between  them  and  the  casing  is  very 
limited  in  amount,  and  an  attempt  to  enlarge 
the  diameter  of  the  casing,  so  as  to  allow  more 
air  to  pass  through  it,  simply  results  in  admitting 
cold  air  to  some  of  the  registers,  without  increas- 
ing the  amount  of  warm  air.  For  this  reason, 
all  improved  furnaces  present  devices,  more  or  less 
successful,  for  enlarging  the  surface  heated  by  the 
fire,  so  that  more  air  can  be  brought  in  contact 
with  the  hot  iron,  and,  in  consequence,  a  greater 


52  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

amount  of  warm  air  can  be  delivered  through  the 
registers,  without  admitting  to  them  air  which 
has  escaped  actual  contact  with  the  heating  sur- 
faces, and  is  therefore  cold. 

A  simple  method  of  increasing  the  surface 
heated  by  the  fire  is  found  in  the  "  gill  stoves," 
often  used  in  England  for  heating  churches,  in 
which  deep,  vertical  ribs  are  formed  on  the  out- 
side of  the  stove.  As  the  heat  from  the  fire 
extends  very  rapidly  by  conduction  into  these 
ribs,  the  surface  available  for  wTarming  the  air 
which  passes  over  the  stove  is  multiplied  by 
them  many  fold.  As  applied  to  furnaces,  the 
principle  of  the  gill  stove  is  modified,  the  solid 
ribs  of  the  stove  being  usually  replaced  by  deep 
corrugations,  into  which  the  smoke  and  hot  gases 
from  the  fire  penetrate,  increasing  the  effect ; 
and,  in  a  very  good  form  of  furnace,  these  verti- 
cal corrugations  are  themselves  undulated,  so 
that  the  air  passing  between  them  is  thrown 
more  effectually  into  contact  with  the  heated 
iron. 

In  another  type  of  furnace,  the  extension  of 
the  heating  surface  is  obtained  by  means  of  a 
system  of  pipes,  vertical,  horizontal,  circular, 
conical,  or  cylindrical,  through  which  the  smoke 
and  heated  gases  are  drawn  by  the  draught  of 
the  chimney.  The  whole  system  is  enclosed  in 
a  large  casing,  and  it  is  presumed  that  the  air 
passing  through  the  casing  will  either  come  in 
contact  with  one  or  more  of  the  pipes,  or  will  be 


FURNACES  53 

mixed  with  air  that  has  been  in  contact  with 
them,  so  that  the  temperature  of  the  air  from  the 
registers  will  be  nearly  uniform.  In  furnaces  of 
this  class,  as  the  smoke  from  a  freshly  kindled  fire 
could  not  be  drawn  by  a  cold  chimney  through 
all  the  convolutions  of  the  system  of  pipes,  a 
short  cut  is  always  provided,  by  which  it  can,  at 
first,  pass  directly  into  the  chimney ;  and  later, 
when  the  chimney  has  become  warm,  and  the 
draught  is  well  established,  the  current  can,  by 
closing  a  damper,  be  made  to  pass  through  the 
rest  of  the  system  of  pipes  before  it  reaches  the 
chimney.  The  short-cut,  or  "  direct-draught " 
smoke-pipe  is  usually  near  the  top  of  the  furnace, 
and  the  damper  in  this  is  opened  while  a  fresh 
fire  is  being  kindled,  or  when  the  chimney  has 
become  cold  and  it  is  desirable  to  warm  it  to  set 
up  a  proper  draught.  So  long  as  the  direct- 
draught  damper  is  open,  while  the  fire  will  burn 
briskly,  little  warm  air  will  pass  through  the 
registers  ;  but,  by  closing  the  direct  draught,  after 
the  fire  is  well  established,  the  smoke  is  sent 
through  the  "  indirect  draught,"  which  usually 
issues  from  the  furnace  near  the  bottom,  bring- 
ing all  the  heating  surfaces  into  action,  and 
greatly  increasing  the  amount  of  warm  air  de- 
livered through  the  registers. 

Although  the  distinction  between  the  two 
methods  of  increasing  the  amount  of  air  heated 
by  a  furnace  has  a  certain  importance,  most  fur- 
naces partake  more  or  less  of  both  types,  those 


54 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


Check- 
draught. 


Automatic 
control. 


with  deep  flanges  having  also  some  convolution 
of  the  smoke-pipe,  by  which  a  little  extra  heating 
surface  can  be  gained,  while  those  which  depend 
upon  a  complication  of  smoke-flues  usually  have 
the  fire-pot  flanged,  or  corrugated,  or  covered  with 
spikes,  to  increase  its  surface  ;  so  that,  in  practice, 
nearly  every  furnace  has  its  direct  and  indirect 
draught. 

In  addition  to  these  provisions,  the  control  of 
a  furnace  fire  is  usually  made  very  perfect  by 
contriving,  not  only  slides  in  the  upper  and  lower 
doors,  but  a  "  check-draught,"  either  in  the  "  in- 
direct-draught "  pipe,  or  in  the  main  smoke-pipe. 
This  check-draught,  in  most  cases,  acts  solely  by 
admitting  more  or  less  cold  air  to  the  smoke-pipe 
or  chimney-flue,  but  it  is  sometimes  fitted  with  a 
damper,  so  that,  when  the  current  is  checked  by 
admitting  cold  air,  the  smoke-pipe  is  at  the  same 
time  partially  closed,  producing  a  kind  of  double 
effect.  In  either  case,  the  check-draught  is  made 
nicely  adjustable,  so  that  the  entrance  of  cold  air 
can  be  accurately  controlled. 

Many  devices  have  been  introduced  for  mak- 
ing this  control  automatic,  so  that  the  furnace 
will  open  its  own  check-draught  when  the  fire 
burns  too  briskly,  and  close  it  when  the  tempera- 
ture falls.  The  cheaper  inventions  for  this  pur- 
pose, which  act  by  the  difference  of  expansion  of 
two  metal  rods  or  tubes,  set  in  the  furnace  casing, 
are,  in  most  cases,  of  little  use,  their  action  being 
variable  and  uncertain ;  but  the  more  expensive 


FURNACES  55 

ones,  which  act  by  compressed  air,  or  by  electric- 
ity, are  very  efficient. 

Most  furnaces,  in  addition  to  their  feeding  and  Additional 
ash  doors,  and  their  direct  and  indirect  smoke- 
pipes  and  check-draughts,  show  various  compli- 
cations, the  purpose  of  which  is  not  always  very 
evident.  Where  the  capacity  of  the  heating  por- 
tion of  the  furnace  is  comparatively  small,  as  in 
those  consisting  merely  of  a  drum  over  the  fire- 
pot,the  opening  of  the  upper  door  will  often  chill 
the  air  above  the  fire  so  much  as  to  check  the 
draught,  and,  in  consequence,  the  combustion  of 
the  coal,  causing  a  quantity  of  poisonous  car- 
bonic oxide  gas  to  be  generated,  which  escapes 
through  the  door  into  the  cellar,  and  is  thence 
drawn  into  the  crevices  of  the  cold-air  box,  and 
sent  through  the  registers  into  the  rooms.  In 
order  to  capture  this  gas  as  it  issues  from  the 
door,  and  draw  it  off  into  the  chimney,  a  narrow 
hood  is  often  placed  over  the  upper  door  of  fur- 
naces of  this  type,  communicating  with  the  smoke- 
pipe  ;  and,  in  order  that  this  may  not  act  as  a 
check-draught,  a  cover  is  fitted  to  .it,  and  attached 
to  the  door,  in  such  a  way  that  when  this  is 
shut,  the  hood  is  closed,  the  opening  of  the  door 
uncovering  also  the  hood.  As  the  leakage  of  cold 
air  into  the  hood,  even  when  it  is  closed  by  its 
cover,  interferes  appreciably  with  the  draught  of 
the  furnace,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  offers,  on 
the  whole,  any  advantage  ;  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  openings  which,  in  some  furnaces,  are 


56  THE   CAEE   OF   A   HOUSE 

made  from  the  ash-pit  into  the  smoke-pipe,  or  into 
some  internal  flue,  in  order  to  carry  off  the  cloud 
of  fine  ashes  produced  by  shaking  the  grate.  Al- 
though such  openings  are  usually  provided  with 
a  cover,  which  can  be  opened  or  shut  from  the 
outside,  the  cover  is  never  perfectly  tight,  and, 
when  clogged  with  ashes  or  cinders,  as  it  is  very 
apt  to  be,  cannot  be  shut  at  all,  so  that  the  open- 
ing then  acts  as  a  powerful  check-draught,  inter- 
fering materially  with  the  proper  action  of  the 
furnace.  In  general,  all  openings  into  the  smoke- 
pipes  or  flues  of  furnaces,  except  the  direct  and 
indirect  draught  connections,  and  the  usual  check- 
draught  on  the  latter,  are  objectionable,  interfer- 
ing with  the  regularity  and  strength  of  the 
draught  in  the  chimney,  which  affords  the  best 
safeguard  against  the  escape  of  gas  or  fine  ashes 
into  the  cellar. 

cieanouts.  There  are,  however,  in  every  furnace  certain 
openings,  necessary  for  cleaning  the  heating  sur- 
faces, which  vary  in  position,  according  to  the 
design  and  construction  of  the  furnace.  These 
openings  extend  to  the  outside  of  the  casing,  and 
always  have  small  iron  doors,  fitted  as  nearly  air- 
tight as  possible  ;  and,  unless  they  are  forced  open 
by  rust,  as  is  often  the  case,  they  do  not  materially 
affect  the  draught. 

The  cleanout  doors  are  usually  arranged  at  the 
back  and  sides  of  the  furnace,  and  such  extra 
doors  as  are  found  in  front  are  generally  intended 
either  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  clinkers,  or  to 


FURNACES  57 

allow  a  pan  of  water,  to  be  introduced  into  the 
air-chamber.  The  clinker-door,  which  is  placed 
just  over  the  ash-door,  communicates  by  a  long 
horizontal  opening  with  the  lower  portion  of  the 
fire-pot,  just  above  the  grate  ;  and  its  purpose  is 
to  allow  the  "  clinkers,"  or  lumps  of  melted  ashes, 
which  are  apt  to  collect  just  above  the  grate,  to 
be  fished  for,  so  to  speak,  with  a  light  poker, 
with  a  hook  at  the  end,  provided  for  such  contin- 
gencies, and  pulled  to  the  edge  of  the  grate,  where 
there  is  room  for  them  to  drop  into  the  ash-pit. 
The  water-door  is  higher  up,  and  communicates 
only  with  the  air-chamber,  on  a  shelf  in  which  is 
placed  a  cast-iron  pan,  fitting  the  shape  of  the 
fire-pot,  and  intended  to  be  kept  full  of  water, 
so  that  the  evaporation  from  this  may  supply 
moisture  to  the  warm  air  issuing  from  the  regis- 
ters. A  few  years  ago,  evaporation  of  this  kind  Evapora, 
was  thought  to  be  essential  to  the  health  of  per-  * 
sons  living  in  houses  heated  by  furnaces  in  winter, 
and  the  regular  filling  of  the  water-pan  in  the 
furnace,  either  by  means  of  a  dipper,  or  by  an 
automatic  arrangement,  comprising  an  exterior 
pan,  with  water-supply  and  ball-cock,  connected  by 
a  pipe  with  the  inner  pan,  was  a  part  of  the  ordi- 
nary household  duties;  but  many  physiologists 
now  believe  that  a  dry,  warm  air,  if  pure,  and 
moderately  heated,  as  is  generally  the  case  where 
it  is  supplied  through  modern  furnaces,  is  more 
favorable  to  health  in  winter  than  an  atmosphere 
which  is  warm  and  moist,  and  that  people  who 


58  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

live  in  houses  where  no  attempt  is  made  to  supply 
artificial  moisture  to  the  air  in  winter  are  less 
likely  to  take  cold  than  those  who  have  the  pores 
of  the  skin,  while  they  are  in  the  house,  kept  open 
by  an  atmosphere  intentionally  moistened.  Ex- 
perience seems  to  have  confirmed  this  view,  and 
very  few  modern  furnaces  have  any  provision  for 
evaporating  water  in  the  air-chamber.  In  the 
same  way,  the  improved  grates  now  in  use  re- 
move clinkers  much  more  quickly  and  effectually 
than  is  possible  by  the  use  of  the  hooked  poker, 
and  furnaces  provided  with  such  grates  do  not 
need  a  clinker-door,  and  are  usually  made  with- 
out it. 

A  little  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  con- 
struction of  a  furnace  will  greatly  facilitate  its 
management,  which  is  not  often  a  matter  of 
serious  difficulty.  As  the  control  of  the  fire, 
proper  economy  of  fuel,  and  the  prevention  of 
the  escape  of  gas  or  ashes  into  the  house,  depend 
upon  a  good  draught  in  the  chimney,  every  pre- 
caution mentioned  in  connection  with  the  flues 
of  kitchen  stoves  should  be  observed  with  even 
greater  care  in  regard  to  the  furnace  flue.  A 
furnace  flue  is  less  likely  than  a  kitchen  flue  to 
have  additional  stoves  or  fireplaces  opening  into 
it,  but  these  are  sometimes  found,  and  it  is  more 
liable  than  a  kitchen  flue  to  have  its  draught 
spoiled  by  not  being  carried  down,  entirely 
separate  from  all  other  flues  or  ash-pits,  to  the 
very  bottom ;  or  by  the  unobserved  opening  of 


FURNACES  59 

ash-pit  doors  in  the  chimney,  or  cleanout  doors 
in  the  furnace,  by  accident,  or  by  rust ;  or  by 
imperfect  fitting  of  the  smoke-pipe  thimble  into 
the  brickwork  of  the  chimney ;  or  by  any  other 
accident  or  oversight  through  which  cold  air, 
even  in  small  volume,  is  unintentionally  ad- 
mitted to  the  flue. 

Supposing  the  flue  to  be  tight,  it  must  also 
be  unobstructed.  Most  furnace  flues  are  carried 
down  to  the  cellar  floor,  so  that  a  considerable 
space  is  left  below  the  smoke-pipe  connection,  in 
which  the  fine  ashes,  carried  into  the  chimney  by 
the  draught,  can  accumulate,  but  even  this  space 
will,  in  time,  fill  up,  so  that  the  ashes  will  rise 
above  the  mouth  of  the  smoke-pipe,  and  choke 
the  draught,  unless  they  are  from  time  to  time 
removed  through  the  iron  door  usually  built  in 
at  the  foot  of  the  flue ;  and  if,  as  is  often  the 
case  in  city  houses,  the  space  for  ashes  below  the 
smoke-pipe  connection  is  small,  it  is  still  more 
necessary  to  clear  it  out  frequently. 

Another  common  cause  of  sluggish  or  irregular 
draught  in  furnace  flues  is  the  improper  arrange- 
ment of  the  smoke-pipe.  This  should  be  made 
as  short  and  direct  as  possible,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  cooling  of  the  hot  smoke  and  gases,  and 
consequent  loss  of  draught ;  and  it  should  rise 
continuously  from  the  furnace  to  the  connection 
with  the  chimney.  It  is  very  common  for  the 
men  who  set  furnaces,  in  order  to  give  head-room 
for  passing  under  the  smoke-pipe,  to  make  a  por- 


60  THE   CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 

tion  of  it  nearly  or  quite  level,  or  even  to  give  it 
in  some  places  a  slight  pitch  downward.  While 
a  pipe  laid  in  this  way  will  draw  when  there  is 
a  hot  fire  in  the  furnace,  the  strong  upward  cur- 
rent so  created  in  the  flue  being  sufficient  to 
draw  the  smoke  even  downward  for  a  short 
distance,  the  draught  suddenly  stops  as  soon  as 
the  fire  is  allowed  to  burn  low,  and  the  fire 
either  goes  out,  or  is  revived  with  difficulty. 
This  trouble  is  easily  cured  by  changing  the 
course  of  the  smoke-pipe,  so  as  to  ascend  con- 
tinuously, without  regard  to  the  head-room  un- 
derneath it.  Then  the  moderately  heated  gases 
from  a  low  fire,  instead  of  trying  in  vain  to  dive 
down  a  depression  in  the  smoke-pipe,  or  to  creep 
along  on  a  level,  will  at  all  times  rise  naturally 
to  the  chimney,  and  the  fire  will  respond  quickly 
to  the  closing  of  the  check-draught,  or  the  open- 
ing of  the  lower  slide ;  while,  the  draught  being 
at  all  times  inward,  even  a  cracked  fire-pot,  or 
an  open  joint  in  the  furnace,  will  not  allow  gas 
to  escape  into  the  air-chamber. 

If  the  chimney  draught  is  good,  the  smoke- 
pipe  properly  laid,  and  all  leaks  of  cold  air  into 
the  flue  stopped,  the  only  further  requisite  for 
the  proper  combustion  of  the  coal  in  the  fire-pot 
is  a  suitable  admission  of  air  under  the  grate ; 
and  this  may  be  interfered  with  in  several  ways. 
The  worst  of  these  is  by  the  accumulation,  of 
ashes  in  the  ash-pit ;  and,  if  these  are  allowed  to 
reach  the  under  side  of  the  grate,  not  only  will 


FURNACES  61 

the  draught  be  checked,  but,  if  an  attempt  is 
made  to  urge  the  fire,  the  grate  itself  is  likely  to 
be  melted.  Modern  furnaces  usually  have  small 
ash-pits,  which  must  be  cleared  out  at  least  once 
a  day  in  cold  weather,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
dangerous  accumulation  which  is  likely  to  take 
place  when  the  clearing  can  be  postponed  for  a 
longer  time,  and  is,  in  consequence,  apt  to  be 
forgotten. 

Where  the  ash-pit  is  clear,  annoying  but  not 
dangerous  obstructions  are  often  due  to  the 
accumulation  of  cinders  and  clinkers  above  the 
grate.  The  old-fashioned  furnaces  were  generally 
fitted  with  a  "  dumping-grate,"  consisting  of  a 
circular  grating  of  cast  iron,  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  lower  opening  of  the  fire-pot,  and  at- 
tached to  a  pivot  in  the  centre,  so  that  it 
could  be  turned  over.  The  pivot  projected 
through  a  slotted  hole  in  the  front  of  the  fur- 
nace, so  that  the  grate  could  either  be  moved 
laterally  from  side  to  side,  by  means  of  a  suitable 
handle,  or,  by  a  different  application  of  the 
handle,  turned  over.  The  lateral  shaking  served 
to  sift  out  the  fine  ashes  through  the  interstices 
of  the  grating,  while  the  coarser  cinders  and 
clinkers,  accompanied,  usually,  by  some  of  the 
coal,  fell  over  the  edge  of  the  grate  into  the  ash- 
pit ;  and,  when  it  was  desired  to  clear  out  the 
furnace,  or  build  a  new  fire,  the  grate  could,  with 
the  same  handle,  be  turned  into  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, allowing  everything  above  it  to  drop  into 


62  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

the  ash-pit.  As  only  the  clinkers  and  cinders  at 
the  edge  of  the  grate  were  dislodged  by  the 
shaking,  treatment  with  the  hooked  poker  was 
generally  necessary  to  get  the  lower  part  of  the 
fire  reasonably  clear ;  and,  even  then,  the  middle 
portion  of  the  grate  could  not  be  easily  reached. 
Several  devices  have  been  introduced  to  meet 
this  difficulty.  In  one  furnace  the  grate  is  made 
in  the  shape  of  a  basket,  which  can  be  turned, 
so  as  to  bring  any  part  of  it  to  the  front,  and 
cleared  of  clinkers  and  cinders  with  a  poker ; 
and  another  form  has  a  grate  sloping  down- 
ward from  all  sides  to  the  centre,  where  there 
is  a  large  hole,  stopped  by  a  plate,  which  can  be 
dropped,  so  as  to  let  the  cinders  and  clinkers 
which  have  been  shaken  down  to  the  hole  fall 
out.  The  more  recent  furnaces  are,  however, 
generally  equipped  with  some  modification  of 
the  Smythe  grate,  similar  to  that  applied  to 
kitchen  stoves,  but  on  a  larger  scale,  with 
the  same  revolving  bars,  with  interlocking 
flanges,  usually  in  two  sets.  These  interlocking 
triangular  flanges,  when  the  bars  are  revolved, 
rise,  clutch  the  cinders  and  clinkers  over  them, 
and,  turning  downward,  drop  them  into  the  ash 
Shaking  a  pit.  In  shaking  a  furnace  provided  with  a  grate 
of  this  kind,  the  first  operation,  after  making 
sure  that  the  ash-pit  is  cleared  of  the  old  ashes, 
should  be  to  revolve  each  set  of  grate-bars  once 
or  twice,  before  any  other  shaking  is  done,  fol- 
lowing this  by  rocking  the  bars,  to  shake  the 


FURNACES  63 

fine  ashes  through.  If  the  bars  are  rocked  before 
turning  them  over,  pieces  of  coal  will  be  shaken 
down  among  the  cinders,  and  will  be  dropped 
with  them  into  the  ash-pit,  and  lost ;  while,  if 
the  fire  is  left  undisturbed  until  the  bars  are 
turned,  the  lower  layer  in  the  fire-pot  will  consist 
of  nothing  but  cinders  and  ashes,  or  clinkers ; 
and,  after  these  are  deposited  in  the  ash-pit,  by 
turning  the  bars  over,  the  rocking,  to  shake  out 
the  fine  ashes,  can  proceed  without  danger  of 
shaking  out  coal.  How  far  the  removal  of  cin- 
ders by  revolving  the  grate-bars  should  be  carried 
depends  on  the  coal  used,  and  the  previous  con- 
dition of  the  fire ;  but,  when  a  bright  light  is 
seen  in  the  ash-pit,  the  fire  may  be  considered, 
with  this  form  of  grate,  to  be  quite  clear. 

With  the  older  forms  of  grate,  the  ash-pit  may 
be  brightly  illuminated   from  the  edges   of   the 
grate,  while  the   middle   is  still   occupied  by  a 
huge  mass  of  melted  ashes  and  cinders,  which  Clinkers, 
can    only  be    removed    by   laborious    extraction 
through   the   door ;    and,  as   these   inert    masses ' 
diminish  materially  the  efficiency  of  the  fire,  it 
is  desirable  to  prevent  them  from  forming,  which 
can  generally  be  done  by  keeping  the  fine  ashes 
well  shaken  out,  and  avoiding,  as  far  as  possible, 
opening  the  lower  door  of  the  furnace.     There 
is  a  great  difference  in  coal  as  to  disposition  to 
form  clinkers,  but  an  infallible  way  to  produce 
them,  with  any  coal,  is  to  send  an  ignorant  ser-  "Starting 
vant    to    "start    up    the    fire"  in   the   morning.  uPthefire-' 


64  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

Unless  careful  instructions  are  given,  this  ob 
ject  is  generally  accomplished  by  closing  the 
check-draught,  if  it  has  been  open,  and  opening 
the  lower  door  of  the  furnace,  without  disturb- 
ing the  ashes  which  have  been  accumulating  in 
the  fire-pot  during  the  night.  The  flood  of  air 
admitted  under  the  grate  effectually  «  starts  up  " 
the  fire,  which,  with  a  reasonably  good  chimney 
draught,  soon  becomes  hot  enough  to  melt  the 
ashes  into  solid  masses ;  and,  by  the  time  the 
housekeeper  arrives,  and  provides  for  mitigating 
the  furious  combustion,  the  mischief  is  done. 

In  place  of  these  violent  proceedings,  which 
are  very  wasteful  of  coal,  as  well  as  destructive 
of  the  furnace,  all  regulation  of  furnaces  should 
be  carried  out  with  caution.  A  good  automatic 
regulator  will  soon  save  its  cost  in  a  large  house ; 
but,  where  this  cannot  be  employed,  much  may 
be  done  by  putting  on  a  large  quantity  of  fresh 
coal  at  night,  and  leaving  it  with  a  moderate 
draught,  so  that,  by  morning,  the  mass  will  be 
well  ignited,  without  burning  furiously,  and  with- 
out needing  to  be  inordinately  "  started  up." 
Manage-  In  general,  furnaces,  when  used  with  anthra- 

furnace.*  c^e  coa^  WOI>k  most  economically  and  efficiently 
by  keeping  the  fire-pot,  in  cold  weather,  filled  as 
high  as  possible  with  coal,  and  allowing  only  a 
moderate  combustion.  As  the  air  which  passes 
through  the  air-chamber  is  warmed  only  by 
actual  contact  with  the  heated  walls  of  the 
furnace  and  smoke-flues,  it  is  found  that  a  large 


FURNACES  65 

extent  of  surface,  at  a  moderate  temperature,  is 
much  more  effective,  with  the  same  expenditure 
of  fuel,  than  a  narrow  zone,  intensely  heated  by 
a  small,  but  furious  fire ;  and  the  latter  is  far 
more  likely  to  crack  the  fire-pot,  or  cause  other 
mischief,  than  a  larger  but  more  moderate  fire. 
At  the  same  time,  if  a  large  body  of  coal  is  main- 
tained in  the  fire-pot,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
open  the  lower  door,  and  forget  to  close  it  again, 
as  a  large  body  of  coal,  burning  furiously,  is, 
naturally,  more  difficult  to  check  than  a  small 
one. 

Many  hot-air  furnaces  have  a  "  hot-water  Hot-water 
attachment,"  or  « combination,"  consisting  of 
a  cast-iron  receptacle,  of  form  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  furnace  used,  or,  sometimes,  of  a  coil 
of  pipe,  suspended  in  the  drum  of  the  furnace, 
which  is  kept  full  of  water,  and  connects,  by 
flow  and  return  pipes,  with  hot- water  radiators 
in  certain  rooms.  These  attachments  are  valu- 
able for  carrying  heat  to  rooms  which  cannot 
well  be  supplied  with  hot  air  from  the  furnace, 
and  require  little  care,  except  to  keep  the  radi- 
ators from  freezing,  and  not  to  build  a  fire  in 
the  furnace  unless  the  water  attachment  is  full 
of  water,  for  fear  of  burning  it  out.  They  add 
to  the  quantity  of  coal  consumed,  particularly  if 
the  pipes  leading  to  the  radiators  are  exposed  to 
cold  air ;  and  it  is  well  to  remember  that  where 
the  hot-water  heater  is  placed  at  the  very  top 
of  the  drum,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  coal 


66  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

should  be  piled  well  up,  so  as  to  get  the  fire  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  water,  in  order  to  secure 
satisfactory  results.  If  well  managed,  such  hot- 
water  attachments  make  it  practicable  to  heat 
with  the  furnace  rooms  so  far  away  from  it 
that  hot  air  could  not  be  made  to  flow  into 
them,  or  so  situated  that  a  tin  hot-air  pipe  could 
not  be  carried  to  them  without  disfiguring  some 
other  room. 

Hot-air  The  tin  pipes  used  for  conveying  the  hot  air 

registers.  from  the  air-chamber  of  a  furnace  to  the  rooms 
to  be  heated,  and  the  registers  through  which  it 
is  delivered,  are  important  portions  of  the  heat- 
ing system.  Much  heat  is  lost  during  the  pas- 
sage of  the  air  through  the  pipes,  particularly  if 
these  are  long,  or  pass  through  cold  rooms,  or 
near  outside  doors  ;  and  they  should,  in  these 
places,  as  well  as  where  they  are  carried  up  in 
partitions,  either  be  made  double,  consisting  of 
two  pipes,  with  a  quarter-inch  or  half-inch  air- 
space between  them,  or  wrapped  with  non-con- 
ducting and  non-inflammable  asbestos  paper ;  or 
the  two  systems  may  be  united,  making  the  pipes 
double,  as  well  as  covering  them  with  asbestos, 
where  the  best  results  are  desired.  Where  two 
pipes  run  side  by  side,  it  is  advantageous  to  unite 
them  in  the  same  wrapping  of  asbestos,  so  that 
one  may  warm  the  other.  With  all  the  care 
that  can  be  taken,  it  rarely  happens  that  all  the 
rooms  in  a  furnace-heated  house  can  be  warmed 
equally  under  all  conditions  of  wind.  The  force 


FURNACES  67 

which  sends  hot  air  through  a  pipe,  being,  usu- 
ally, simply  the  difference  in  weight  between  the 
warm  air  in  the  pipe  and  an  equal  bulk  of  cold 
air,  is  so  slight  that  a  very  small  circumstance 
may  affect  it ;  and,  in  a  high  wind,  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  air  in  the  house  toward  the  lee 
side  usually  carries  with  it  the  warm  currents 
through  the  registers,  which  flow  freely  into  the 
rooms  on  the  side  of  the  house  away  from  the 
wind,  but  can  hardly  be  felt  in  the  rooms  on 
the  windward  side.  In  order  to  counteract,  to  a 
certain  extent,  this  effect,  it  is  usual  to  direct  the 
opening  of  the  cold-air  box,  by  which  fresh  air 
is  taken  from  the  outside  to  supply  the  air-cham- 
ber of  the  furnace,  toward  the  north  or  west,  so 
that  the  coldest  winds  may  blow  into  it,  and 
increase  in  that  way  the  force  of  the  current 
through  all  the  registers ;  and  a  furnace  is  occa- 
sionally seen  fitted  with  two  fresh-air  inlets,  one 
on  the  east  side  of  the  house,  and  the  other  on 
the  north  or  west  side,  so  that  advantage  may  be 
taken,  by  closing  the  inlet  on  the  lee  side,  and 
opening  that  on  the  windward  side,  of  any  cold 
wind. 

With  a  reasonably  efficient  furnace,  there  is  Air-supply, 
little  danger  that  all  the  air  which  will  blow 
in  through  an  ordinary  cold-air  box  cannot  be 
heated  after  the  fire  is  properly  started.  Until 
then,  as  the  circulation  of  a  strong  current  of 
cold  air  through  the  air-chamber  chills  and  checks 
a  feeble  fire,  it  is  often  advisable  to  shut  off  a 


68  THE   CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 

part  of  the  air-supply.  The  full  supply  should, 
however,  be  restored  as  soon  as  the  fire  has  gained 
strength  enough  to  be  capable  of  warming  it.  If 
this  is  not  done,  either  air  will  be  drawn  from 
the  cellar,  through  crevices  in  the  cold-air  box, 
or  some  of  the  registers  will  be  deprived  of  heat, 
as  very  few  cold-air  boxes  are  designed  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  supply  all  the  registers  dependent 
upon  them  without  the  aid  of  the  wind  blow- 
ing into  them,  or  of  air  from  the  cellar.  The 
proper  sectional  area  of  the  cold-air  box  is  the 
sum  of  the  sectional  areas  of  all  the  hot-air 
pipes,  less  one-sixth,  this  fraction  representing 
the  expansion  of  the  cold  air  by  heating.  Where 
the  capacity  of  the  cold-air  box  is  less  than  this, 
the  air  must  be  economized,  at  least  in  calm 
weather,  by  shutting  off  a  part  of  the  supply  to 
some  of  the  registers,  by  partially  closing  the 
dampers  in  the  pipes  which  convey  warm  air  to 
them.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  registers  most 
favorably  situated  will  draw  air  down  through 
those  less  so,  to  make  up  for  the  deficiency  of 
fresh  air  from  the  outside.  The  dampers  for  this 
purpose,  as  well  as  for  equalizing  the  distribu- 
tion among  the  various  rooms,  are,  or  should  be, 
placed  in  the  hot-air  pipes,  near  the  furnace  ;  and, 
where  the  heat  is  to  be  entirely  shut  off  from 
rooms  which  are  not  occupied,  the  same  dampers 
should  be  used  for  the  purpose,  so  that  heat  may 
not  be  wasted  in  the  pipes  leading  to  the  unoccu- 
pied rooms. 


FURNACES  69 

Of  the  troubles  to  which  furnace-heated  houses  Unequal 
are  subject,  the  most  common  is  the  unequal 
heating  of  the  rooms.  To  a  certain  extent  this 
is  inevitable,  a  perfectly  uniform  distribution  of 
the  warm  air  being  impracticable ;  but  much 
may  be  done  to  equalize  the  currents,  or,  at  least, 
the  heat  of  the  rooms  which  they  supply.  In 
general,  the  higher  a  pipe  ascends,  the  stronger 
will  be  the  current  through  it,  for  the  reason  that 
the  difference  of  weight  between  the  column  of 
warm  air  in  it,  and  a  column  of  equal  height  of 
the  exterior  air,  is  correspondingly  greater.  This 
is  the  reason  why  furnace-pipes  to  upper  rooms 
are  always  made  smaller  than  those  to  first-story 
rooms,  the  rapidity  of  the  flow  of  air  through 
them  making  up  for  its  diminished  volume ;  and 
advantage  can  often  be  taken  of  this  principle  to 
increase  materially  the  delivery  of  warm  air  into 
a  room  with  a  register  in  the  floor  by  setting  up 
over  the  register  a  pasteboard  cylinder,  or  rec- 
tangular box,  according  to  the  shape  of  the  regis- 
ter, open  at  both  ends,  and  four  or  five  feet  high. 
This  simple  device,  when  used  in  first-story  rooms, 
may  more  than  double  the  height  of  the  warm 
column,  and,  under  some  circumstances,  greatly 
improve  the  heating  of  the  room. 

For  the  same  reason,  that  a  high  column  of  Coia 
warm  air  will  overpower  a  low  one,  if  the  supply  resister- 
is    not   sufficient    for  both,  it  is  very   common, 
where  the  cold-air  box  of  the  furnace  is  of  insuf- 
ficient capacity,  to  find  one  or  more  registers  in 


70  THE   CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 

the  house,  usually  in  the  first  story,  and  most 
frequently,  perhaps,  in  the  entrance  hall  or  stair- 
case hall,  which  deliver  little  or  no  warm  air ; 
and,  by  testing  them  with  smoke,  a  downward 
current  may  often  be  detected  in  them.  This  is 
so  much  a  matter  of  course  in  most  houses  that 
it  attracts  little  attention ;  but  it  is  by  no  means 
necessary,  and  if  an  adequate  supply  of  fresh  air 
is  given  to  the  furnace,  and  the  dampers  in  the 
hot-air  pipes  are  adjusted,  so  as  to  cut  off  a  part 
of  the  flow  into  the  rooms  which  have  more  than 
their  share  of  warm  air,  and  throw  it  into  those 
which  have  less  than  their  share,  all  the  registers 
can,  with  a  furnace  of  sufficient  capacity,  be  made 
to  deliver  warm  air. 

Hail  The  reason  why  hall  registers  are  more  apt  to 

fail  in  doing  their  duty  than  others  in  the  same 
story  is  that  the  cold  currents  entering  around  or 
through  the  door,  or  descending  a  staircase,  press 
upon  the  surface  of  the  register,  slightly,  but  suf- 
ficiently to  counteract  the  very  feeble  ascending 
force  of  the  current  in  a  first-story  register.  In 
consequence  of  this,  a  hall  register  should  never 
be  placed  under  the  well  of  a  staircase,  but  under 
the  staircase  itself,  or  in  some  other  position 
where  it  will  be  sheltered  from  the  descending 
current ;  nor  should  it  be  placed  where  the  wind 
from  the  door  will  blow  directly  upon  it.  In 
cases  where  hall  registers  have  already  been  badly 
placed  in  this  respect,  their  efficiency  may  often 
be  improved  by  putting  a  table,  or  other  piece  of 


FURNACES  71 

furniture,  over  them,  so  as  to  shelter  them  from 
cold  currents. 

The  current  from  a  register  may,  however,  be 
greatly  affected  by  other  causes  than  that  of  a 
want  of  balance  between  it  and  other  currents. 
The  most  serious  of  these  is,  perhaps,  the  exposure 
of  the  pipe  supplying  it  to  cold  currents  of  air, 
which,  added  to  the  friction  in  a  long  pipe,  par- 
ticularly in  a  pipe  which  has  not  a  decided  and 
continuous  ascent  from  the  furnace,  will  often 
completely  annihilate  the  flow.  Much  may  be 
done  in  such  cases  by  wrappings  of  asbestos 
paper,  in  several  layers,  to  protect  the  pipe  from 
the  cold,  using  in  preference  the  corrugated  paper, 
which  is  a  much  better  non-conductor  than  the 
plain  paper  ;  and  it  is  often  possible,  by  changing 
the  position  of  a  register,  to  shorten  very  materi- 
ally a  long  pipe,  without  any  inconvenience  what- 
ever, and  to  the  great  improvement  of  its  heating 
power.  In  general,  the  registers  in  rooms  at  a 
distance  from  the  furnace  should  be  in  the  side  or 
corner  nearest  the  furnace.  The  rule  for  steam 
or  hot-water  radiators,  that  they  should  be  placed 
under  the  windows,  or  in  the  coldest  part  of  the 
room,  is  totally  inapplicable  to  hot-air  registers, 
the  efficiency  of  which  mainly  depends  on  the 
shortness  and  directness  of  their  communication 
writh  the  furnace.  Vertical  pipes,  especially  those 
carried  up  in  partitions,  or  behind  furrings,  are 
often  exposed  to  cold  air,  and  can  have  their 
working  improved  by  covering  them,  or,  if  that  is 


72  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

impracticable,  by  admitting  warm  air  from  a 
kitchen,  or  some  other  warm  room,  to  the  space 
in  which  they  run  ;  or,  in  extreme  cases,  a  new 
pipe  may  be  carried  up  inside  the  old  one,  or  in 
a  different  place. 

If  all  these  precautions  fail  to  improve  the 
warming  of  a  room,  the  fault  may  be  in  the  fur- 
nace, which  is  very  likely  to  be  incapable  of 
heating  a  sufficient  quantity  of  air  to  supply  all 
the  rooms.  Many  furnaces,  particularly  those 
of  the  simplest  wrought-iron  type,  in  order  to 
throw  the  air  passing  through  their  air-chambers 
against  the  comparatively  limited  heating  surface 
of  the  furnace,  have  a  flat  ring  fastened  to  the  in- 
side of  the  casing,  leaving  a  narrow  annular  space, 
sometimes  not  more  than  two  inches  wide,  be- 
tween this  ring  and  the  drum  of  the  furnace, 
through  which  must  pass  all  the  air  to  supply  all 
the  registers  in  the  house.  With  all  reasonable 
allowance  for  the  increased  rapidity  of  the  cur- 
rents next  to  the  hot  surface,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  quantity  of  air  which  could  pass  through  so 
small  an  opening  would  be  very  inadequate  to 
supply  any  considerable  number  of  registers ;  yet 
it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  houses,  with  furnaces 
of  this  sort,  in  which  the  register  area  is  far 
beyond  the  capacity  of  the  furnace  to  supply. 
Where  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  a  furnace 
is  overtaxed  in  this  way,  something  may  be  done 
to  improve  its  working  by  nearly  closing  the 
dampers  in  the  hot-air  pipes,  so  that  each  room 


FURNACES  73 

can  get  a  small  share  of  the  hot  air.  Then,  by 
driving  the  furnace,  the  air  may  be  made  so  hot 
that  the  small  quantity  delivered  to  each  room, 
mixed  with  the  other  air  in  the  room,  will  give  a 
tolerable  temperature  to  the  whole ;  but  the  only 
remedy  which  is  really  satisfactory  is  to  put  in  a 
furnace  of  a  different  kind,  with  sufficient  heating 
surface  to  warm  the  amount  of  air  required  for 
all  the  pipes. 

It  may  be  observed  that  warm  air,  either  from 
a  furnace  or  an  indirect  steam  or  hot-water  ap- 
paratus, will  not  enter  freely  a  room  which  has 
no  outlet,  either  in  the  shape  of  a  fireplace,  or  an 
open  stove,  or  a  ventilating  register,  or  even  a 
"  stove  hole "  into  a  flue ;  and  the  better  the 
house  is  built,  and  the  more  tightly  the  windows 
fit,  the  more  difficult  it  will  be  to  heat  such  a 
room  with  a  register.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  an 
escape  for  the  air  should  be  contrived  by  an  open- 
ing into  a  flue,  or  even  by  means  of  a  transom 
sash,  or  a  hole  into  a  hall  or  another  room,  mak- 
ing the  opening  as  high  above  the  floor  as  prac- 
ticable. It  often  happens  that  nothing  more  is 
needed  to  enable  a  furnace  to  keep  a '  room  com- 
fortably warm  which  could  not  previously  be 
heated. 


CHAPTER   VII 

STEAM    AND    HOT-WATER    HEATING 

IN  most  large  houses,  and  in  many  small  ones, 
heating  is  effected  by  means  of  steam  or  hot 
water,  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  heat 
is  in  this  way  transmitted  to  places  which  could 
not  be  reached  with  hot  air  from  a  central  fur- 
nace. Of  both  steam  and  hot-water  heating 

Direct  there  are  two  varieties,  the  direct  system,  by 
which  a  radiator,  through  which  the  hot  water 
or  steam  circulates,  is  placed  in  the  room  to  be 

indirect  warmed,  and  the  indirect  system,  by  which  the 
radiators  are  placed  in  the  basement,  and  serve 
to  heat  a  current  of  fresh  air,  which  is  brought 
in  from  the  outside,  and,  after  warming,  is  con- 
ducted to  the  room  to  be  heated.  The  obvious 
advantage  of  the  latter  method  is  that  the  rooms 
are  not  only  warmed,  but  supplied  with  fresh  air, 
while,  under  the  direct  system,  no  fresh  air  is 
introduced,  the  radiators  serving  simply  to  heat 
the  air  already  in  the  room.  In  practice,  the 
two  systems  are  frequently  used  together,  the 
main  rooms,  for  example,  in  a  house  being 
warmed  by  hot  air  from  indirect  radiators  in 
the  basement,  while  the  halls,  and  often  the 
chambers,  are  heated  by  direct  radiation  from 

74 


STEAM   AND   HOT-WATER   HEATING  75 

radiators  standing  in  them.     Occasionally,  also, 

a  dwelling-house  is  heated  by  steam  or  hot  water 

on  the  so-called  "  direct-indirect "  system,  where  Direct-indi- 

the  radiators  standing  in  the  rooms  are  supplied 

with    fresh    air  through   small   openings  in   the 

wall    behind    them,  or    from    pipes    brought   to 

them  through  the  floors ;  so  that  the  occupants 

of    the   room   can   have   the   direct  heat   of   the 

radiator,  with  a  certain  amount  of  fresh,  warm 

air  in  addition. 

Each  of  the  two  principal  systems  has  its  Relative 
advantages  and  disadvantages,  which  are  shared 
proportionally  by  the  mixed  systems.  A  com- 
plete indirect  system  is  more  expensive  in  first 
cost,  and  involves  about  twice  as  great  an  ex- 
pense for  fuel,  as  a  direct  system  which  wTill  do 
the  same  amount  of  heating ;  but  the  constant 
supply  of  fresh  air  which  it  affords  is  a  great 
advantage,  and  an  indirect  system  is  more  com- 
pact, and  less  likely  to  be  injured  by  freezing, 
or  to  do  injury  by  leaking  valves,  than  a  direct 
system.  On  the  other  hand,  a  direct  system, 
besides  the  economy  which  it  offers  in  cost  of 
installation  and  maintenance,  is  more  easily 
managed,  as  the  boiler  is  smaller,  and  there 
are  no  air  conduits  to  look  after. 

Most  boilers  for  house  heating,  both  for  steam  Boilers, 
and  hot  water,  are  made  of  cast  iron,  in  sections, 
so  that,  by  varying  the  number  of  sections,  the 
power  of  the  boiler  can  be  adapted  to  the  cir- 
cumstances   of   the   case.     Some    of    the    larger 


76  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

boilers  are  enclosed  in  a  brick  setting,  but  the 
majority  of  those  used  for  house  heating  are 
either  covered  with  asbestos  or  magnesia,  to 
prevent  loss  of  heat,  or  are  left  bare.  In  the 
early  days  of  cast-iron  sectional  boilers,  when 
used  for  steam,  a  section,  owing  to  imperfect 
circulation  of  the  water,  would  occasionally 
burst ;  but  this  accident,  owing  to  the  small 
proportion  which  a  single  section  bore  to  the 
whole  boiler,  rarely  had  any  worse  consequence 
than  the  upsetting  of  the  household  economy 
while  repairs  were  being  made.  Now,  however, 
the  designing  of  such  boilers  is  better  under- 
stood, and  an  accident  of  the  sort  is  of  rare 
occurrence. 

Hot-water  Hot-water  heating,  for  which  the  same  boilers 
are  used,  dispensing  with  the  safety-valve,  and 
water  and  pressure  gauges,  and  some  other  ac- 
cessories, has  certain  advantages,  for  dwelling- 
houses,  over  steam  heating.  As  water  boils, 
under  normal  atmospheric  pressure,  only  at  a 
temperature  of  212°,  no  steam  can  be  formed, 
or  forced  into  the  radiators,  at  any  lower  tem- 
perature than  this,  except  by  means  of  air- 
pumps,  condensers,  or  other  devices,  which  are 
too  complicated  and  costly  for  use  in  ordinary 
houses ;  and,  with  the  light  pressures  used  in 
house  apparatus,  the  steam  can  be  raised  very 
little  above  this  temperature,  as  a  slight  increase 
in  the  temperature  increases  the  pressure  to  the 
point  at  which  the  safety-valve  opens.  The  tern- 


STEAM   AND   HOT-WATER  HEATING          77 

perature  of  a  steam  radiator  can,  therefore,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  be  varied  only  within 
narrow  limits,  and  if  it  is  powerful  enough  to 
heat  a  given  room  satisfactorily  on  a  cold  day  in 
winter,  it  will  be  far  too  powerful  for  the  same 
room  in  mild  weather ;  yet  nothing  can  be  done 
to  mitigate  its  heat  except  to  shut  off  steam 
altogether,  which  will  leave  the  room  cold,  or  to 
open  the  windows,  wasting  the  heat,  and  en- 
dangering sensitive  people  in  the  room.  This 
inconvenience  is  particularly  felt  in  houses 
heated  by  direct  steam  at  night,  when,  as  the 
temperature  of  the  radiators  cannot  be  mate- 
rially varied,  it  is  necessary  either  to  keep  up 
steam  all  night,  making  the  rooms  as  warm  at 
night  as  in  the  daytime,  or  let  the  steam  go 
down  to  a  point  below  212°,  when  the  radia- 
tors at  once  become  perfectly  cold.  With  an 
indirect,  or  a  direct-indirect  system,  something 
can  be  done  to  modify  the  temperature  by  open- 
ing or  closing  the  registers,  and  thus  varying  the 
air-supply  ;  and  direct  radiators  are  sometimes 
made  double,  so  that  one-half  only  may  be  used 
at  night ;  but  these  devices  increase  the  cost, 
and,  if  steam  is  to  circulate  at  all,  a  large  fire 
must  be  kept  up  through  the  night. 

With  hot  water,  on  the  contrary,  the  heat  of  Hot-water 
the  radiators  can  be  varied  to  almost  any  extent,  * 
as  the  water  simply  flows  through  them,  bringing 
with  it  whatever    temperature   may  have    been 
imparted    to  it,   from    the  freezing-point  to  the 


.     78  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

boiling-point.  It  is,  therefore,  not  necessary  to 
keep  up  a  bright  fire  through  the  night,  a  low 
fire  being  sufficient  to  keep  the  radiators  at 
whatever  moderate  temperature  may  be  desir- 
able. For  this  reason,  hot-water  heating  by 
direct  radiation  is  very  popular  among  the  own- 
ers of  small  houses,  as  the  heat  is  capable  of 
perfect  regulation,  while  the  boiler  is  small,  dura- 
ble, and  easily  managed,  and  the  cost  of  fuel  is 
less  than  for  any  other  system  of  heating  equally 
efficient. 

indirect  Although     direct     hot- water    heating,    owing, 

heating6'  mainly,  to  its  better  regulation,  but  also,  per- 
haps, in  some  degree,  to  the  lower  temperature 
of  the  heating  surfaces,  is  less  oppressive  than 
direct  steam  heating,  neither  system  affords  any 
ventilation ;  and,  to  secure  a  supply  of  fresh  air 
in  connection  with  the  special  advantages  of  a 
hot-water  system,  indirect  radiators,  similar  to 
those  used  for  steam,  must  be  placed  in  the  cellar, 
and  the  fresh-air  current  passed  through  them. 
As  the  temperature  of  the  hot-water  radiators, 
under  the  open-tank  system  generally  used  in 
this  country,  is  considerably  lower  than  that  of 
a  steam  radiator,  their  size  must  be  proportion- 
ately increased,  in  order  to  obtain  sufficient 
power  for  the  coldest  weather;  and  an  indirect 
hot-wrater  heating  system  is  on  this  account  both 
bulky  and  expensive,  although,  where  the  neces- 
sary space  and  money  can  be  afforded,  it  gives 
admirable  results,  with  a  comparatively  small 


STEAM   AND   HOT-WATER   HEATING          79 

expenditure  of  fuel.  The  intermediate  system, 
known  as  direct-indirect,  where  the  radiators 
standing  in  the  rooms  have  special  air-supply, 
although  common  with  steam,  is  very  rarely  ap- 
plied to  hot-water  heating,  probably  on  account 
of  the  danger  of  freezing  a  hot-water  radiator  in 
which  the  circulation  happened  to  be  cut  off  or 
obstructed. 

The  difficulties  encountered  in  the  manage-  Difficulties 
ment  of  steam  or  hot-water  heating  apparatus, 
either  direct  or  indirect,  are  usually  due  either  to 
insufficient  heating  surface,  insufficient  boiler 
power,  or  imperfect  circulation.  Where  heating 
work  is  done  by  contract,  the  contractors,  who 
have  usually  secured  the  work  by  putting  in  the 
lowest  bid,  in  competition  with  other  contractors, 
are  naturally  tempted  to  furnish  the  smallest  radi- 
ators and  pipes,  and  the  cheapest  and  smallest 
boiler,  that  they  think  the  owner  can  be  prevailed 
upon  to  accept.  It  seldom  happens,  under  such 
circumstances,  that  the  house  is  comfortably 
warmed  in  the  coldest  weather ;  and,  if  the 
owner  obstinately  declines  to  accept  argument 
in  place  of  heat,  the  contractor,  if,  as  should  al- 
ways be  the  case,  he  has  given  a  written  guaran- 
tee to  heat  a  certain  list  of  rooms  simultaneously 
to  70°  when  the  thermometer  outside  stands  at 
zero,  without  overtaxing  the  boiler,  will  generally 
begin  by  taking  out  the  radiators  in  the  coldest 
rooms,  and  substituting  larger  ones.  If  the  boiler 
is  really  large  enough,  this  process,  if  carried  suffi- 


80  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

ciently  far,  and  if  the  pipes  are  of  the  proper 
size,  and  well  arranged,  will  remove  the  difficulty ; 
but  if  the  boiler  is  too  small,  so  that,  with  steam, 
it  is  necessary  to  maintain  more  than  the  usual 
standard,  for  house  boilers,  of  ten  pounds'  press- 
ure, to  furnish  the  required  heat,  this  also  should 
be  rejected,  and  a  larger  one  put  in. 

Where  a  large  house  is  to  be  heated,  it  is  ad- 
visable for  the  owner,  or  some  expert  for  him,  to 
calculate,  by  means  of  the  simple  rules  given  in 
the  text-books,  the  sizes  of  the  radiators  which 
will  be  needed  for  rooms  of  the  given  dimensions, 
considering  also  the  window  surface  and  the  ex- 
posure, and  deduce  from  these  the  necessary  size 
of  the  pipes,  and  the  required  heating  and  grate 
surface  of  the  boiler,  and  to  make  the  contract 
accordingly.  As  all  these  conditions  must  be 
fulfilled  before  the  building  can  be  properly 
heated,  it  is  a  saving  of  time  and  money  to  see 
that  they  are  complied  with  at  the  outset, 
imperfect  Even  where  the  boiler,  pipes,  and  radiators  are 

rcuiation.  jarge  enougn>  some  of  the  rooms  may  fail  to 
heat,  owing  to  imperfect  circulation  in  the  pipes. 
This  may  occur  either  with  steam  or  hot  water 
heating,  but  it  is  more  easily  remedied  with  the 
latter.  In  general,  the  ideal  hot-water  heating 
system  may  be  said  to  consist  of  a  vertical  loop, 
with  the  boiler  at  the  bottom,  the  hot  water 
flowing  out  of  the  top  of  the  boiler  into  the 
ascending  portion  of  the  loop,  and,  as  it  cools, 
returning  by  the  descending  portion  of  the  loop 


STEAM   AND    HOT-WATER   HEATING  81 

into  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  where  it  is  again 
heated,  and  again  rises,  to  go  through  the  same 
course.  In  practice,  however,  this  simple  plan 
must  be  modified  in  various  ways.  In  order  to 
heat  several  rooms  on  the  same  story,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  branch  pipes,  running  nearly  hori- 
zontally, to  supply  some  of  the  radiators,  at  a 
distance  from  the  main  ascending  and  descending 
pipes.  If  these  branch  pipes,  both  for  flow  and 
return,  can  be  kept  either  perfectly  horizon- 
tal, or  inclined  in  parallel  lines,  the  flow-pipe 
continuously  ascending  to  the  radiator  which  it 
supplies,  while  the  return-pipe  continuously  de- 
scends, the  circulation  will  still  be  good  ;  but  a 
dip  in  either  pipe  below  the  horizontal,  or  a  curve 
above  it,  will,  unless  special  precautions  are  taken, 
stop  the  flow,  for  the  reason  that,  in  a  down- 
ward dip,  cold  water,  being  heavier  than  hot 
water,  accumulates,  interposing  a  barrier  to  the 
current,  while  an  upward  bend  is  soon  filled 
with  air  from  the  bubbles  carried  along  in  the 
water,  and,  as  the  current  has  not  force  enough 
to  push  the  air  out  of  its  path,  the  circulation  is 
stopped  in  this  way  as  effectually  as  in  the  other. 
In  fact,  an  "air-bound  "  pipe  is  more  effectually 
stopped  than  one  with  a  dip  in  it ;  for,  by  carry- 
ing up  a  loop  of  pipe,  in  such  a  way  that  the 
water,  before  it  reaches  the  dip,  ascends  as  high 
above  the  general  line  of  the  pipe  as  the  dip  is 
below  it,  or,  if  possible,  a  little  higher,  the  resist- 
ance of  the  cold  water  in  the  dip  will  be 


82  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

overcome,  and  circulation  will  go  on  without 
interruption,  while  an  air-bubble  confined  at 
the  top  of  an  upward  bend '  can  only  be  got  rid 
of,  and  the  flow  restored,  by  letting  the  air  escape 
through  a  valve  or  otherwise,  which  is  not  always 
an  easy  matter. 

In  practice,  hot-water  systems  are  usually  so 
arranged  that  the  water  rises  from  the  boiler 
almost  immediately  to  an  "  expansion-tank "  at 
the  top  of  the  house,  the  pipes  descending  thence, 
and  supplying  the  radiators  on  the  way,  so  that 
the  force  gained  by  the  elevation  of  the  expan- 
sion-tank above  the  general  heating  system  is 
available  to  lift  the  wTater  out  of  any  dips  that 
may  be  necessary  to  carry  the  pipes  past  doors 
or  under  floors ;  but  this  is  not  always  the  case, 
the  radiators  being  sometimes  fed  from  the  up- 
ward current.  In  either  case,  the  whole  system, 
including  any  upward  bends,  if  these  are  used, 
should  be  so  arranged  that  air-bubbles  in  any 
pipe  will  rise  to  the  expansion-tank  and  escape. 

Unfortunately,  hot-water  systems  are  not 
always  arranged  as  they  should  be,  and  both 
pipes  and  radiators  often  contain  "  traps  "  for 
air-bubbles,  unprovided  wTith  means  of  escape 
for  the  air  to  the  expansion-tank,  so  that,  in 
place  of  such  means,  air- valves  must  be  used, 
either  opened  by  hand,  or  automatically  operated, 
by  means  of  a  little  float  inside  them,  to  pre- 
vent the  circulation  from  being  stopped,  arid  the 
radiators  or  pipes  from  becoming  cold. 


STEAM   AND   HOT-WATER   HEATING          83 

Where  a  hot-water  radiator  will  not  heat, 
there  is  reason  to  suspect  a  stoppage  of  the  flow 
from  one  of  these  two  causes ;  and  the  course 
of  the  pipes  should  be  examined,  to  ascertain 
whether  a  dip  downward,  or  a  bend  upward,  is 
responsible  for  the  trouble.  If  the  former  is 
discovered,  the  pipes  should  be  straightened  ;  or, 
if  that  is  impracticable,  a  rising  loop  may  be 
made  above  the  dip,  remembering  to  provide  an 
escape  for  air-bubbles  gathering  at  the  top  of  the 
loop ;  or,  in  some  cases,  a  pipe  may  be  carried 
down  from  the  bottom  of  the  dip  to  a  return- 
pipe.  If,  on  the  contrary,  an  upward  bend  is 
found,  without  provision  for  the  escape  of  air, 
such  escape  should  be  provided,  either  by  drilling 
the  pipe,  and  putting  in  an  automatic  air-valve, 
or  by  connecting  the  top  of  the  bend  with  a 
pipe  communicating  with  the  expansion-tank. 
If  neither  of  these  is  found  practicable,  relief  may 
sometimes  be  obtained  by  carrying  either  the 
flow  or  return  pipe  from  the  ailing  radiator,  or 
both,  directly  to  the  boiler,  instead  of  taking 
them  as  branches  from  a  main  vertical  pipe. 
In  some  small  houses  every  radiator  has  its  own 
separate  flow  and  return  pipe  from  the  boiler, 
the  upper  ends  of  the  loops  thus  formed  being 
connected  with  the  expansion-tank.  Although 
this  arrangement  involves  a  greater  length  of 
pipe  than  branching  from  a  main  supply  and 
return,  the  pipes  used  are  smaller,  and,  therefore, 
much  cheaper,  and  a  good  deal  of  complication 


84  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

is  avoided,  while  the  circulation  in  the  radiators 
is  always  good. 

Circulation  in  a  steam  system  is  as  liable  to 
interruption  as  that  in  a  hot-water  system,  but 
in  a  different  way.  The  pressure  under  which 
the  steam  is  driven  through  the  pipes  prevents 
stoppage  by  the  collection  of  water  in  down- 
ward dips,  or  of  air  in  moderate  upward  bends ; 
but  radiators,  in  which  the  steam  enters  at  the 
bottom,  and,  after  a  devious  course  through  the 
radiator,  escapes  again  at  the  bottom,  are  very 
apt  to  fill  with  air,  so  that  steam  cannot  be 
forced  into  them,  and  they  are  usually  fitted 
with  air-valves,  automatic  or  otherwise,  to  allow 
the  air  to  escape.  Many  steam  radiators  will 
not  heat  at  all  until  the  air-valve  is  opened ; 
and,  as  a  sudden  rush  of  steam  and  water 
usually  follows  the  expulsion  of  the  air,  such 
valves,  unless  automatic,  must  be  carefully 
watched,  wThen  opened,  or  the  room  may  be 
flooded  with  water,  or  filled  with  steam,  to  the 
ruin  of  the  furniture. 

In  a  large  system  of  steam  heating  every  radi- 
ator has  two    pipes,   one   for  supplying  it  with 
steam,  and   the  other  for  draining  off  the  water 
which  forms  in  it  from  the  condensation  of  the 
steam,  and  returning  it  to  the  boiler ;  the  return- 
pipe  being  usually  a  size  smaller  than  the  steam- 
pipe.     Most  house  systems  are,  however,  for  the 
single-pipe     sake  of  economy,  arranged  for  what  the  steam- 
system,         fitters  call  a  "  one-pipe  job,"  the  steam  entering 


STEAM   AND    HOT-WATER   HEATING  85 

the  radiator  through  the  same  pipe  which  carries 
the  condensed  water  away.  Where  the  pipes  in 
a  one-pipe  system  are  large  enough,  they  are  not 
likely  to  give  trouble ;  but,  where  they  are  of 
insufficient  size,  the  steam  rising  through  them 
to  the  radiators  has  not  room  enough  to  pass 
amicably  by  the  condensed  water  flowing  in  the 
opposite  direction,  on  its  way  down  to  the 
boiler,  and  pushes  it  back  in  part,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  squeezes  past  it  in  what  space  may 
be  left.  The  water  thus  held  back  by  the 
current  of  steam  accumulates,  until  there  is 
enough  of  it  to  fill  the  bore  of  the  pipe  com- 
pletely, cutting  off  the  passage  of  steam  beside 
it.  The  steam  then,  being  unable  to  pass  by, 
pushes  the  plug  of  condensed  water  violently 
before  it,  until  it  is  dashed  against  the  inside  of 
a  radiator,  or  a  turn  in  the  pipe,  producing  the 
"  hammering  "  noise  so  common  in  steam-heating 
systems,  and,  with  high-pressure  steam,  some- 
times breaking  the  radiators  or  fittings. 

Even  with  a  two-pipe  system,  where  the 
steam  enters  the  radiators  by  a  different  pipe 
from  that  which  carries  off  the  condensed  water, 
hammering  often  occurs  in  the  steam-pipes,  from 
the  collision  of  the  steam  with  water  condensed 
in  the  steam-pipes  themselves.  It  is  obvious 
that,  wherever  the  steam  is  exposed  to  cooling, 
water  will  be  condensed  from  it,  whether  the 
process  takes  place  in  a  supply-pipe  or  in  a  radi- 
ator ;  and,  if  the  supply-pipes  are  long,  particu- 


86 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


Remedy  for 
hammering. 


larly  if  they  have  also  branches,  the  amount  of 
water  condensed  in  them,  and  flowing  down,  in 
opposition  to  the  current  of  steam,  may  easily 
be  sufficient,  if  pressed  back  by  the 
steam,  to  fill  the  bore  of  the  pipe. 
The  remedy  for  hammering  in 
steam-pipes,  whatever  may  be  its 
source,  is  simple  in  theory,  but  is 
sometimes  expensive.  It  is  obvious 
that,  if  the  steam  and  the  condensed 
water  can  be 

R 

made  always  to 
move  in  the  same 
direction  in  the 
pipes,  there  will 
be  no  collisions, 
and  no  hammer- 
ing ;  and  all 
steam -heating 
systems  should 
be  arranged  as 
far  as  possible 
on  that  princi- 
ple. In  Figure 
11,  for  exam- 
ple, it  is  evident  that  the  steam-pipe  S,  supply- 
ing the  radiators  above,  will,  even  if  the  radiators 
have  separate  returns,  and  much  more  if  they  do 
not,  be  at  all  times  partially  filled  with  water 
condensed  from  the  steam  passing  through  it,  and 
flowing  back  to  the  boiler;  and  on  very  cold 


FIG.  11. 


STEAM   AND   HOT-WATER   HEATING 


87 


D 


FIG.  12. 


days,  when  condensation  is  rapid,  or  early  in  the 
morning,  when  the  steam  is  first  turned  into  cold 
pipes,  there  will  be  a  large  amount  of  water 
running  back,  in  a  direction  con- 
trary to  that  of  the  steam  current, 
and  collisions  and  hammering  are 
at  such  times  inevitable.  By  ar- 
ranging the  same  pipe  as  shown  in 
Figure  12,  and  adding  the  "  relief  " 
or  "  drip "  pipe  shown  at  D,  the 
condensed  water 

s 


D 


in  the  horizontal 
portion  of  the 
pipe  will  flow  in 
the  same  direction 
as  the  steam  to- 
ward the  point  P, 
where  it  is  imme- 
diately drained 
off  through  the 
pipe  D  into  the 
main  return- 
pipe  R.  A  lit- 
tle water  will 
still  condense 
in  the  vertical  steam-pipe  between  P  and  the 
radiator,  and  will  flow  down  in  opposition  to 
the  current  of  steam,  but  it  is  too  small  in 
amount  to  give  trouble,  and  is  drained  off  as 
soon  as  it  Reaches  the  point  P,  by  the  drip- 
pipe  D. 


R 


88  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

Where  a  steam-heating  system  has  been  laid 
out  with  insufficient  care,  so  that  it  gives  annoy- 
ance by  hammering,  relief-pipes  can  often  be 
added  in  this  way,  so  as  to  cure  the  trouble, 
without  any  great  expense ;  and,  where  this  is 
impracticable,  something  may  often  be  gained 
by  covering  the  long,  vertical  steam-pipes  with 
felt,  so  as  to  diminish  the  condensation  in  them. 

In  managing  steam  radiators  with  two  pipes, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the  smaller,  or 
return-pipe,  communicates,  in  most  cases,  with 
the  water  of  the  boiler;  and  if  it  is  left  open, 
when  the  steam-valve  is  shut,  the  vacuum  left  in 
the  radiator  by  the  condensation  of  the  steam 
remaining  in  it  will  draw  up  water  from  the 
boiler  into  the  radiator,  nearly  or  quite  filling  it. 
With  small  house-heating  boilers  the  water  may 
be  drawn  dangerously  low  by  being  sucked  up 
into  the  radiators  in  this  way,  and  the  two 
valves  of  radiators  fitted  up  on  the  two-pipe 
system  should  always  be  opened  or  closed  to- 
gether. In  a  single-pipe  system  the  radiators 
have  but  one  valve,  which  shuts  off  or  opens 
both  steam  and  return  at  once.  Where  the 
radiators  to  be  cared  for  are  those  of  an  indi- 
rect steam-heating  system,  it  is  still  more  neces- 
sary to  remember  to  shut  off  the  steam  and 
return  together,  as  a  radiator  which  has  been 
allowed  to  fill  with  water  through  neglect  to 
Freezing.  close  the  return  is  likely  to  freeze  and  burst 
where  exposed  to  the  cold  air  which  passes 


STEAM   AND    HOT-WATER   HEATING  89 

through  the  fresh-air  conduits  of  an  indirect 
system.  The  radiators  of  a  direct-indirect  sys- 
tem are  also  liable  to  freezing  in  the  same  way, 
if  allowed  to  fill  from  an  open  return.  In  any 
case,  if  a  return-valve  has  been  left  open  when 
the  steam-valve  is  closed,  so  as  to  allow  the  radi- 
ator to  fill,  the  water  may  be  easily  expelled  by 
opening  the  steam-valve.  The  pressure  of  the 
steam  soon  forces  out  the  water  through  the 
open  return-valve,  and  when  the  gurgling  noise 
incident  to  this  process  has  ceased,  and  the  radi- 
ator is  warm  in  all  portions,  both  valves  may 
be  closed. 

As  the  radiators  of  a  hot-water  system  cannot  Freezing  of 
be  emptied  separately  of  water,  they  are  always  radiators', 
in  some  danger  of  freezing  in  cold  weather ;  but 
a  small  fire  in  the  boiler  will  be  sufficient  to  keep 
the  water  in  them  warm,  where  a  steam  radiator, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  pressure  enough  to  force 
steam  into  it,  would  be  cold,  and,  if  full  of 
water,  would  freeze.  As  the  freezing  of  a  hot- 
water  radiator  is  a  serious  matter,  care  should  be 
taken,  in  very  cold  weather,  to  see  that  none  of 
the  radiators  are  shut  off,  by  closing  the  valve, 
which,  in  the  case  of  a  hot-water  system,  leaves 
the  radiator  full  of  water.  Any  pipes  or  radia- 
tors that  are  liable  to  become  «  air-bound  "  should 
also  be  tried,  and  air-valves  opened,  or  relief 
given  in  other  ways,  so  that  the  circulation 
may  be  free  throughout  the  system  while  the 
cold  weather  lasts. 


90  THE   CARE    OF   A   HOUSE 

Fresh  Many  people,  including  some  dealers  in  heat- 

ing apparatus  for  houses,  advise  drawing  all  the 
water  out  of  a  steam  or  hot-water  heating  system 
at  least  once  a  year,  and  refilling  with  fresh 
water.  This  may  be  advisable  where  the  steam 
is  used  to  drive  an  engine,  as  the  oil  from  the 
cylinder  of  the  engine  finds  its  way  into  the  re- 
turn water,  and  accumulates  in  the  boiler ;  but 
in  the  case  of  heating  systems  it  is  injudicious, 
as  every  addition  of  fresh  water  causes  rust  in 
the  pipes  and  other  apparatus.  It  should  be  kept 
in  mind  that  water  containing  dissolved  air  and 
carbonic  acid  acts  upon  iron,  while  water  that  has 
been  heated,  and  is,  therefore,  free  from  dissolved 
gases,  does  not  act  upon  it.  After  the  apparatus, 
therefore,  has  once  been  filled  with  reasonably 
pure  water,  and  the  water  heated,  no  further  se- 
rious rusting  will  take  place  inside  the  pipes  and 
boiler,  even  in  many  years,  so  long  as  they  re- 
main filled  with  the  same  water ;  while,  if  the 
boiled  water  is  drawn  off,  and  fresh  water  put 
in,  rusting  will  immediately  begin  again.  Both 
in  hot-water  and  steam  systems  there  will  be 
some  loss,  owing  to  evaporation  from  the  ex- 
pansion-tank in  a  hot-water  system,  and  to  leak- 
age from  valves  in  a  steam  apparatus ;  and  it 
is  occasionally  necessary,  where  the  water  con- 
tains much  sediment,  to  draw  off  the  sediment 
at  the  lowest  part  of  the  system,  to  prevent  clog- 
ging. Losses  of  this  kind  must  be  made  up  with 
fresh  water,  which  is  added  to  a  hot-water  system 


STEAM   AND    HOT-WATER   HEATING          91 

by  pouring  it  into  the  expansion-tank,  and  to  a 
steam-boiler  for  house  heating,  usually,  by  turn- 
ing it  on  from  the  street-supply  until  the  water 
gauge  shows  the  boiler  to  be  sufficiently  filled ; 
but  unnecessary  addition  of  fresh  water  to  a 
system  of  either  kind  should  be  avoided. 


CHAPTER    VIII 


Sewer-gas. 


Drainage 

system. 


PLUMBING 

THE  greatest  comfort  and  convenience  of 
modern  dwellings  is  the  source  of  some  of  the 
housekeeper's  worst  anxieties ;  and  a  sufficient 
knowledge  of  plumbing  apparatus  to  be  able  to 
keep  it  from  giving  trouble,  or  to  diagnose  the 
malady,  if  symptoms  appear,  and  have  the 
proper  remedy  applied,  is  a  valuable  possession, 
for  all  plumbing  apparatus  is  liable  to  derange- 
ments, more  or  less  serious,  at  frequent  intervals. 

The  horrors  of  sewer-gas  have  been  sounded 
in  the  ears  of  the  public  for  many  years  with  so 
much  energy,  not  to  say  exaggeration,  that  every 
one  has  some  idea  of  the  ways  in  which  it  is 
kept  out  of  a  house,  and  can  speak  with  reason- 
able intelligence  of  waste-pipes,  traps,  soil-pipes 
and  drains,  sewers  and  cesspools,  and  knows 
something  also,  probably,  of  the  system  of  sup- 
ply-pipes by  which  water  is  brought  into  the 
house,  and  distributed  to  the  various  fixtures. 

Of  the  two  main  divisions  of  the  science  of 
plumbing,  that  which  concerns  the  drainage  sys- 
tem should  first  be  considered,  including  the 
sewer  or  cesspool  which  forms  the  termination 
of  the  system.  Fortunately  for  the  inhabitants 

92 


PLUMBING  93 

of  cities,  sewers  do  not  often  give  the  house-  Sewers, 
keeper  any  concern,  except  as  they  may  occa- 
sionally overflow  during  high  tides,  or  after 
heavy  showers,  or  furnish  a  passage  for  rats  Rats, 
into  the  basement.  As  rats  are  good  swimmers, 
they  find  little  difficulty  in  ascending  the  sewers 
and  house-drains,  diving  through  the  traps,  and 
coming  up  into  the  house  through  the  bowl  of 
a  basement  water-closet ;  and  if  a  sewer  over- 
flows, or  is  obstructed,  it  is  by  the  same  path 
that  the  water  will  find  its  way  into  the  house. 
There  seems  to  be  no  way  of  keeping  out  either 
the  rats  or  the  water,  if  they  are  disposed  to 
come  in ;  but  the  overflowing  of  a  modern 
sewer  into  the  houses  which  drain  into  it  is  a 
rare  occurrence. 

A  cesspool,  on  the  contrary,  is  frequently  a  Cesspools, 
source  of  trouble,  and  the  reasons  for  the 
trouble,  and  the  methods  of  preventing  it, 
deserve  to  be  studied  by  all  who  have  the 
care  of  country  houses.  The  ordinary  cesspool 
is  a  circular  pit,  usually  from  six  to  eight  feet 
in  diameter,  and  eight  or  ten  feet  deep,  lined 
with  a  rough  stone  or  brick  wall,  laid  without 
mortar,  so  that  the  liquid  in  the  cesspool  can 
soak  away  through  the  interstices  into  the 
ground  outside.  The  top  of  the  lining  wall  is 
usually  drawn  in  to  form  a  rough  dome,  leaving 
a  manhole  in  the  centre,  which  is,  or  should  be,  covers, 
covered  with  an  iron  plate,  so  that  the  cesspool 
can  be  frequently  inspected.  In  practice,  how- 


94  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

ever,  country  masons  commonly  put  a  flat  stone 
over  the  opening  in  the  dome,  and  grade  the 
earth  over  the  whole,  the  result  of  which  is 
that  extensive  excavations  have  to  be  made  to 
find  it,  later,  when  the  drainage  system  begins 
to  give  trouble. 

The  drain-pipe  from  the  house  is  entered  into 
the  cesspool  as  near  the  top  as  is  consistent  with 
a  proper  fall  from  the  house,  so  as  to  keep  as 
much  capacity  below  it  as  possible  ;  and  the  liquid 
brought  by  it  pours  into  the  pit,  and  is,  for  a  time, 
absorbed  by  the  earth  at  the  sides  and  bottom. 
After  a  period  varying,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil  in  which  the  cesspool  is  dug,  from  a 
few  days  to  many  weeks,  or  even  years,  the  grease 
and  slime  brought  by  the  drain  coat  over  the 
absorbent  surface  of  the  earth  around  the  pit,  so 
that  the  water  no  longer  soaks  away  freely,  and 
Clogging  of  it  begins  to  accumulate,  first  in  the  cesspool,  and 
^en  -n  ^e  ^rain-pipe  entering  it.  If  the  cess- 
pool is  so  much  lower  than  the  house  that  the 
surface  of  the  ground  over  it  is  below  the  base- 
ment floor  of  the  house,  the  water,  when  the  cess- 
pool is  full,  will  overflow  upon  the  ground,  causing 
a  certain  amount  of  annoyance  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  house  and  their  neighbors,  but  probably 
not  exposing  them  to  any  real  danger.  If,  how- 
ever, the  basement  floor  is  below  the  ground  over 
the  cesspool,  the  effect  of  emptying  a  bath-tub, 
or  the  laundry  wash-trays,  in  the  house,  after  the 
cesspool  is  full,  will  be  to  cause  the  foul  water 


PLUMBING  95 

from  the  cesspool  to  overflow  back  into  the  house, 
usually  through  a  basement  water-closet,  this  be- 
ing the  lowest  fixture  connected  with  the  drain. 

The  overflow  of  the  cesspool  liquids  into  the  Overflow  of 
basement  of  the  house,  although  not,  perhaps,  so 
dangerous  a  catastrophe  as  some  enthusiasts  would 
have  us  believe,  is  a  very  annoying  matter.  The 
use  of  all  the  plumbing  fixtures  in  the  building 
must  be  suspended,  often  for  several  days,  until 
the  cesspool  can  be  cleaned  out ;  and  the  base- 
ment must  be  cleared  of  the  foul  sewage,  the  stench 
of  which  permeates  the  house.  After  the  pores 
of  the  ground  have  once  become  clogged  with 
slime,  the  cesspool  fills  up  much  more  rapidly, 
and,  if  it  has  been  dug  in  clayey  ground,  this  ex- 
perience may  recur  every  few  weeks ;  and  the 
cost  of  frequent  cleaning  of  the  cesspool,  for  which 
the  licensed  contractors  often  demand  extortion- 
ate prices,  is  likely  to  make  a  considerable  inroad 
into  modest  incomes. 

As  a  cesspool,  the  walls  of  which  have  once  The  remedy 
become  coated  with  slime,  can  only  be  restored  fJJ^ng1" 
to  moderate  efficiency  by  a  prolonged  period  of  cesspools, 
disuse,  during  which  the  slime  decomposes,    or 
dries    and    falls    off,  the  usual   course,  where  a 
house  cesspool  in  constant  use  fills  up,  is  to  make 
another  near  by,  so  as  to  expose  a  fresh  surface 
of  earth,  and  lay  an  overflow-pipe  from  the  old 
one  to  the  new  one.     This  affords  relief  until  the 
sides  of  the  new  cesspool  also  become  coated  with 
slime,  when  the  process  must  be  repeated. 


96  THE   CARE   OF    A   HOUSE 

As  each  cesspool  saturates  the  ground  about  it 
with  decomposing  filth,  the  multiplication  of  them 
is  more  or  less  prejudicial  to  the  health  of  the  peo- 
ple who  have  to  live  near  them,  and  other  ways  of 
preventing  them  from  overflowing  into  the  house 
are  to  be  preferred.  The  simplest  and  most  effi- 
cient of  these,  where  circumstances  admit,  is  to 
select  a  site  for  the  cesspool  on  lower  ground,  so 
that  the  overflow  will  run  out  on  the  surface,  in- 
stead of  backing  up  into  the  house ;  or,  if  the 
cesspool  is  already  built,  to  carry  an  overflow-pipe 
from  it,  with  an  outlet  at  the  surface  of  some 
neighboring  low  ground.  Then,  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  a  permanent  little  rivulet  of  sewage 
from  the  overflow,  a  pump,  such  as  can  be  bought 
for  a  few  dollars  from  dealers  in  hardware  or 
plumbing  goods,  should  be  fixed  in  the  cover  of 
the  cesspool,  with  a  suction-pipe  reaching  nearly 
to  the  bottom  ;  and,  on  the  appearance  of  over- 
flowing sewage  on  the  surface,  the  contents  of 
the  cesspool  should  be  pumped  out,  and  used  to 
water  the  lawn  or  garden.  The  liquid  in  the  cess- 
pool will  be  found  to  consist,  as  it  flows  from  the 
pump,  simply  of  milky  water,  mixed,  when  the 
cesspool  is  nearly  pumped  out,  with  portions  of 
brown  scum,  and  small  white  lumps  of  grease. 
The  watery  portion,  when  thrown  upon  grass- 
land or  garden  soil,  is  immediately  absorbed,  all 
odor  disappearing  in  a  few  minutes ;  but  the  scum 
and  grease  may,  for  the  sake  of  neatness,  require 
raking  over,  to  incorporate  them  with  the  earth. 


PLUMBING  97 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  fluid  is  an 
admirable,  though  dilute,  fertilizer,  and  the  lover 
of  a  garden  soon  comes  to  look  upon  his  cesspool, 
if  equipped  with  a  pump  in  this  way,  as  a  pre- 
cious source  of  big  and  brilliant  flowers,  luxu- 
riant shrubbery,  and  thick  green  grass.  As  the 
pumping  out  of  the  cesspool  stops  for  a  time  the 
course  of  the  overflow  rivulet,  allowing  the  ground 
over  which  it  flows  to  dry  and  aerate,  any  annoy- 
ance from  it  is  prevented,  ground  subjected  to 
alternations  of  sewage  saturation  and  aeration 
being  quite  inoffensive. 

If  a  pump  is  desirable  for  a  cesspool  so  situated 
that  the  wrater  from  it  will  not  back  up  into  the 
house,  even  if  it  should  overflow,  it  is  still  more 
valuable  for  a  cesspool  which,  if  it  overflows,  will 
flood  the  basement ;  and  such  a  pump,  if  not  per- 
manently set,  ought  at  least  to  be  available  in 
emergencies  for  every  cesspool.  As,  however, 
the  cesspool  purnp  is  often  a  more  agreeable  ob- 
ject of  contemplation  to  the  horticulturist  mem- 
bers of  the  family  than  to  the  housekeeper,  it  is 
desirable  to  know  how  its  use  may  be  rendered 
less  frequently  necessary,  by  the  employment  of 
some  more  automatic  method  for  absorbing  the 
overflow  harmlessly.  The  best  system  for  this  Subsoil 
purpose,  where  the  conformation  of  the  ground  l 
permits  its  application,  consists  of  a  receiving- 
cesspool,  or  settling-basin,  which  is  usually  made 
with  tight  floor  and  walls,  of  brickwork  in  cement, 
and  a  number  of  lines  of  open-jointed  subsoil 


98  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

absorption-pipes,  laid  ten  or  twelve  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  filled  through  the 
medium  of  a  flushing-tank,  which  receives  water 
from  the  settling-basin,  and,  when  full,  discharges 
its  contents  all  at  once  into  the  subsoil-pipes. 
The  water  so  discharged  finds  its  way  immedi- 
ately out  of  the  joints  between  the  pipes  into  the 
soil  around  them,  and  is  absorbed,  the  ground 
then  being  left  to  the  influence  of  the  air  until  the 
next  discharge. 

The  essential  requisite  for  such  a  system  is  that 
ground  shall  be  available  for  the  distribution  pipes 
at  such  a  grade  that  they  can  be  laid  within 
twelve  inches  of  the  surface  without  raising  the 
water  level  in  the  receiving-basin  so  high  as  to 
flow  the  sewage  back  into  the  house.  As  the 
flushing-tank  must  be  filled  by  the  overflow  from 
the  receiving-basin,  and  must  discharge  at  a  level 
from  two  to  four  feet  lower,  according  to  the 
variety  of  flushing-tank  used,  the  surface  of  the 
distribution  area  must  be  at  least  three  feet  below 
the  bottom  of  the  cellar  of  the  house,  and  should 
be  more,  if  possible. 

Where  such  a  tract,  containing  a  few  hundred 
square  feet,  is  available,  no  system  of  sewage  dis- 
posal for  country  houses  approaches,  for  efficiency, 
cleanliness,  and  economy,  that  by  subsoil  irriga- 
tion. Although  the  first  cost  is  much  greater 
than  that  of  an  ordinary  cesspool,  varying  from 
about  a  hundred  dollars  for  a  simple  system, 
suitable  for  a  house  with  one  bath-room,  to  several 


PLUMBING  99 

hundred  where  a  large  amount  of  sewage  is  to 
be  disposed  of,  the  expense  of  cesspool  cleaning, 
which  sometimes  amounts  to  as  much  in  a  single 
year  as  the  whole  cost  of  a  better  system,  is  saved, 
the  subsoil-pipes  only  needing  to  be  taken  up 
once  in  two  or  three  years,  cleared  of  possible 
sediment  with  a  stick,  and  replaced ;  while  there 
is  no  danger  of  the  backing  of  sewage  into  the 
house,  there  are  no  new  cesspools  to  be  dug 
when  the  old  one  fills  up,  and  there  is  no  con- 
tamination of  the  ground,  the  liquid  which  flows 
from  the  joints  of  the  distribution-pipes  being  so 
thoroughly  oxidized  and  transformed  by  the  nitri- 
fying agencies  which  fill  the  surface  soil  that, 
after  many  years  of  use,  no  trace  of  sewage  matters 
can  be  found  in  the  earth  around  the  pipes. 

For  the  economical  planning  and  execution  of 
a  system  of  this  sort,  even  for  a  small  house,  pro- 
fessional advice  is  de- 
sirable ;  but  it  may  be 
of  assistance  to  those 
out  of  reach  of  such 
advice  to  say  that  the 
subsoil-pipes  should  be 
twTo-inch  agricultural 
sole  tile  (Figure  13), 

laid  one-quarter  of  mi  inch  apart,  and  the  joint 
covered  with  a  bit  of  tarred  paper  while  the  earth 
is  refilled  around  them.  Many  architects  lay 
them  on  strips  of  board  to  keep  them  in  line,  and 
concave  tiles  can  be  had  for  the  same  purpose, 


100  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

which  have  the  advantage  over  boards  that  they 
do  not  rot  away  and  dislocate  the  whole  line  of 
pipes  resting  on  them  ;  but  with  care  to  compact 
the  earth  evenly  under  them,  they  can  be  laid 
with  satisfactory  results  directly  on  the  natural 
soil.  For  a  house  with  one  bath-room  about  five 
hundred  feet  of  subsoil-pipe  should  be  used. 
This  is  much  more  than  enough  to  dispose  of  all 
the  sewage,  even  in  a  clay  soil ;  but  the  pipes  are 
cheap,  and,  as  some  of  them  are  sure  to  settle, 
and  fill  up  with  the  soft  sediment  which  imme- 
diately collects  where  the  flow  is  checked,  ample 
margin  should  be  allowed.  The  lines  of  pipe 
should  be  laid  with  a  pitch  of  one  inch  in  twenty- 
five  feet.  With  a  greater  pitch  the  sewage  flows 
too  rapidly  to  the  end  of  the  line,  and  may  make 
its  way  to  the  surface  there,  unless  the  last  tile 
is  turned  slightly  downward.  With  a  less  pitch 
the  flow  is  sluggish,  and  the  more  distant  pipes 
will  not  do  their  work. 

If  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it,  none  of  the  distri- 
bution-pipes should  be  more  than  twelve  inches 
below  the  surface,  as  the  purifying  influence  of 
the  soil  is  very  slight  below  that  point.  There 
is  no  danger  that  the  sewage  will  freeze  in  the 
pipes  unless  it  should  stagnate  in  some  depres- 
sion ;  or  that  the  ground  will  freeze  around  them 
so  as  to  refuse  to  absorb  the  warm  flow.  For 
supplying  the  lines  of  subsoil-pipe,  four-inch 
vitrified  drain-pipe  is  generally  used,  jointed  with 
cement,  the  hubs  pointing  downward,  and  with 


PLUMBING 


V////S/4 


numerous  Y  or  double  Y  branches  into  which  the 
first  tiles  of  the  subsoil  lines  are  cemented.  The 
upper  end  of  the  line  of  vitrified  pipe  terminates 
at  the  flushing-tank,  and  the  lower  end  should  be 
continued  by  a  long  line  of  open-jointed  tiles,  so 
that  sediment  may  not  collect  in  the  main  pipe 
and  cut  off  the  branches.  The  flushing-tank  may 
be  either  a  siphon-tank,  of  which  many  varieties 
are  sold,  or  a  tilting-tank  of  galvanized  iron  (Fig. 
14),  pivoted  so 
that  it  will  tip 
over  when  full, 
recovering  itself 
when  the  liquid 
in  it  has  been  dis- 
charged. Siphons 
have  the  disad- 
vantage of  occa- 
sionally filling  up  with  grease,  throwing  the 
drainage  system  out  of  use  until  the  siphon  is 
removed,  and  the  grease  melted  out ;  and  they 
require  greater  depth  than  a  tilting-tank,  but 
they  are  much  used.  Tilting-tanks,  if  preferred, 
must  generally  be  made  to  order,  and  should 
work  in  a  special  chamber  (Fig.  15),  filling  by  an 
overflow-pipe  from  the  settling-basin,  and  pouring 
their  contents,  when  they  tip  forward,  directly 
into  the  mouths  of  the  main  distributing-pipes, 
several  of  which  may  branch  in  various  directions 
from  the  tilting-tank  basin,  if  necessary.  The 
overflow-pipe  from  the  settling-basin,  by  which 


FIG.  14. 


103  . 


,OF   A   HOUSE 


Subsoil- 
overflows. 


FIG.  15. 

the  tilting-tank  is  filled,  should  be  made  with  a 
bend,  dipping  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  settling-basin,  in  order  that  scum  may  not 
pass  over.  The  cost  of  the  tilting-tank  with  its 
basin  is  no  greater  than  that  of  a  siphon,  and  it 
has  the  advantage  that  it  never  clogs,  and  can  be 
readily  inspected  and  cleaned  without  interrupt- 
ing its  functions. 

Where  the  ground  about  the  house  is  so 
nearly  level  that  the  fall  requisite  for  a  proper 
subsoil  irrigation  system  cannot  be  obtained, 
some  relief  from  the  annoyance  of  an  overflow- 
ing cesspool  may  be  secured  by  laying  lines  of 
open-jointed  sole  tile  directly  out  from  the  cess- 
pool, radiating,  if  necessary,  in  all  directions,  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  as  much  as  possible 
the  surface  of  absorbent  soil  reached  by  the  sew- 
age. The  pipes  should  be  laid  as  near  the  sur- 


PLUMBING 


103 


face  as. practicable,  without  allowing  the  sewage 
to  back  up  into  the  cellar,  so  as  to  bring  the  liquid 
which  overflows  through  them  into  the  porous  and 
oxidizing  upper  soil,  which  will  take  up  and  de- 
stroy a  large  amount  of  sewage  in  this  way  before 
the  pipes  become  clogged.  After  this  has  occurred, 
it  is  a  trifling  matter  to  take  them  up  and  clean 
them  out ;  and,  if  the  ground  around  them  has 
become  saturated,  they  may  be  relaid  in  fresh  soil. 

Even   where   the   house   is    connected   with   a  Main  traps 
sewer,  or  where  the  cesspool,  or  other  system  of 


FIG.  16. 

disposal,  is  in  good  order,  sewage  will  often  back 
up  and  overflow  the  basement  through  the  chok- 
ing of  a  main  trap  with  grease.  The  main  trap 
is  simply  a  dip  in  the  line  of  the  main  drain,  in- 
tended to  keep  air  from  the  sewer  or  cesspool 
out  of  the  house  pipes,  and  usually  has  a  hand- 
hole  for  cleaning  (Fig.  16),  closed  with  a  plug  or 


104  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

brass  screw,  and  a  "  foot  vent,"  or  inlet-pipe,  on 
the  house  side  of  the  trap,  open  to  the  air,  for 
admitting  air  to  the  system  of  house  pipes. 
Such  main  traps  are  sometimes  found  inside  the 
house,  and  sometimes  in  pits  outside,  the  prac- 
tice varying  with  the  locality,  and  with  the  period 
at  which  the  house  was  built.  Whatever  the 
style  of  trap,  or  the  period  to  which  it  belongs, 
it  is  sure  to  give  trouble  sooner  or  later ;  and 
the  householder  who  does  not  wish  to  see  his 
basement  water-closet  occasionally  overflowing, 
or  the  laundry  wash-trays  filled  with  foul  water, 
must  take  care  to  have  the  trap  cleaned  out  at 
regular  intervals.  It  is  still  better,  in  building  a 
new  house,  to  leave  the  main  trap  out  alto- 
gether ;  or,  if  it  is  found  in  a  house  already  built, 
to  have  it  removed.  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
proprietor  must  consult  the  local  Board  of  Health 
before  he  ventures  to  do  anything  about  the  mat- 
ter, for  there  is  no  question  in  regard  to  which 
Board  of  Health  regulations  are  so  diverse,  not 
to  say  occasionally  unreasonable,  as  that  of  main 
traps.  Tn  some  towns  traps  are  required  on 
drains  connecting  with  cesspools,  and  prohibited 
on  those  connecting  with  a  sewer ;  in  others 
exactly  the  reverse  is  prescribed ;  in  a  third  set 
drains  of  both  sorts  must  be  trapped ;  and  a 
fourth  set  prohibits  all  traps. 

Apart  from  the  fancies  of  Boards  of  Health,  a 
drain  communicating  with  a  cesspool  is  much 
better  without  a  trap.  Not  only  does  ihe 


PLUMBING  105 

absence  of  the  trap  remove  the  source  of  many 
overflows  of  sewage  into  the  basement,  and 
consequent  contamination  of  the  house,  but  it 
allows  free  passage  of  air  from  the  cesspool, 
which,  in  such  cases,  should  have  a  perforated 
cover,  through  the  house-drain  and  soil-pipe  to 
the  outlet  of  the  latter  above  the  roof.  As  the 
air  in  the  cesspool,  particularly  if  it  has  a  perfo- 
rated cover,  is  much  better  than  that  in  the 
house  pipes,  lined,  as  the  latter  always  are,  with 
putrefying  slime,  the  ventilation  of  the  cesspool 
through  the  house  system  tends  to  purify  and 
aerate  the  latter,  without  the  slightest  risk,  if 
the  cesspool  is  used  by  only  one  family, .of  intro- 
ducing into  the  house  any  germs  or  infection  not 
already  existing  in  the  house  pipes ;  at  the  same 
time  that,  by  causing  a  flow  of  air  downward, 
through  the  perforated  cover  into  the  cesspool, 
by  means  of  the  strong  draught  existing  in  the 
warm  pipes  of  the  house,  and  thence  through  the 
house  pipes  to  the  roof,  it  prevents  the  smells 
usually  noticed  around  a  cesspool  without  such 
ventilation. 

Where  the  house-drain  connects  with  a  public  sewer-traps, 
sewer,  there  is  a  reason  for  cutting  off  the  access 
of  air  from  the  sewer  to  the  house  pipes  by 
means  of  a  trap,  in  the  fact  that  the  sewer  con- 
tains infectious  wastes  from  many  diseased  per- 
sons, and  that,  although  sewer  air  has  been  many 
times  proved  to  be  remarkably  free  from  floating 
microbes,  there  is  reason  to  think  it  may,  if  in- 


106  THE    CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

haled,  produce  in  the  system  a  condition  of  predis- 
position to  infection  from  certain  causes.  Of  late 
years,  however,  while  house  systems  of  waste-pipes 
are  better  inspected,  and  made  more  secure  against 
leakage  of  air,  than  formerly,  the  practice  of 
engineers  in  building  sewers  has  been  modified, 
and  the  free  ventilation  now  adopted  has  mate- 
rially changed  the  character  of  sewer  air.  In 
many  towns  and  cities  the  use  of  main  traps  on 
house-drains  connecting  with  sewers  is  prohib- 
ited, for  the  express  purpose  of  allowing  the 
sewers  to  ventilate  through  the  house  pipes  ;  and 
where  the  main  trap  is  still  insisted  upon,  the 
sewers  are  generally  ventilated  by  open  manhole 
covers  in  the  streets.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that  an  incautious  person,  passing  one  of 
these  open  manhole  covers,  is  quite  likely  to 
inhale  a  larger  dose  of  sewer  air  than  he  would 
get  by  living  years  in  a  house  without  a  main 
trap ;  so  that,  as  sewers  are  now  built,  the  risk 
of  infection  from  them  is  lessened,  rather  than  in- 
creased, by  leaving  out  all  main  traps,  and  util- 
izing the  soil-pipes  of  the  houses  as  ventilation 
flues,  drawing  fresh  air  in  at  the  open  manhole 
covers ;  while  the  danger  and  annoyance  result- 
ing from  the  almost  inevitable  choking  of  main 
traps  are  avoided. 

Cleaning  Where    the  trap   exists,  it    is,  or    should    be,, 

always  accessible,  either  from  the  inside  of  the 
house,  or  by  a  manhole  outside,  so  that  it  can 
be  cleaned  out  through  the  hand-hole.  In  most 


PLUMBING  107 

houses  this  operation  must  be  repeated  every  few 
months,  as  the  dip  of  the  trap  collects  sediment, 
and,  as  the  flow  of  warm,  greasy  water  is 
checked  by  the  bend,  the  grease  chills  and  ad- 
heres to  its  sides.  Warning  is  usually  given  of 
the  approaching  stoppage  of  the  trap  by  the 
slow  running  off  of  water  from  the  wastes  of  the 
basement  fixtures,  and  it  should  then  be  cleaned 
at  once,  before  a  complete  stoppage  causes  an 
overflow  into  the  basement. 

Even  where  there  is  no  trap  on  the  main  Grease, 
drain,  the  drain-pipe  itself  may  clog  with  grease 
if  it  is  laid  with  insufficient  fall  or  is  exposed  to 
cold  air.  Contrary  to  the  general  belief  of 
plumbers,  a  small  pipe  is  less  likely  to  choke 
with  grease  than  a  large  one,  for  the  reason  that 
the  current  is  more  rapid  in  the  small  pipe,  and 
the  surface  of  the  stream  is  smaller,  so  that  the 
warm,  greasy  water  from  the  kitchen  and  pantry 
sinks  reaches  the  sewer  or  cesspool  before  the 
grease  has  had  time  to  become  chilled  and  ad- 
here to  the  sides  of  the  pipe ;  but,  as  servants  of 
a  certain  class  are  apt  to  put  old  rubber  shoes, 
rags,  scrubbing-brushes,  and  other  articles  of 
various  kinds  down  the  drain,  the  diameter  of 
the  main  pipe  must  be  sufficient  to  accommodate 
such  objects  without  complete  stoppage,  five 
inches  being  generally  enough.  Cooks  and  other 
servants  also  differ  greatly  in  regard  to  the 
amount  of  grease  which  they  waste  through  the 
sinks ;  so  that,  while  one  may  keep  a  drain  free 


108  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

for  years,  another  will  choke  it  in  a  few  months. 
The  stoppage  from  this  cause  is  likely  to  occur 
where  the  pipe  passes  through  a  cold  place  in 
the  cellar.  In  such  a  place  the  walls  of  the  pipe 
become  so  cold  as  to  solidify  the  particles  of 
grease  .carried  past  them  by  the  current.  These 
solidified  particles  attach  themselves  to  the  sides 
of  the  pipe,  and  in  their  turn  become  cold,  and 
catch  and  solidify  others,  until  the  pipe  grad- 
ually fills  with  a  mass  so  hard  as  to  require  a 
chisel  to  remove  it. 

cieanouts.  Every  main  drain-pipe  in  a  house,  and  the 
principal  branch  drains,  ought  to  be  laid  with  a 
Y  branch  and  brass  cleanout  screw  at  every 
change  of  direction,  so  that  the  whole  length 
of  the  pipe  can  be  reached  and  scraped  out 
when  required.  If  this  is  done,  the  clearing 
out  is  a  simple  operation,  and  in  an  hour  or 
two  the  pipes  are  in  perfect  order  again.  Where, 
however,  this  precaution  is  neglected,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  break  the  main  pipe,  or  cut  large 
holes  in  it,  to  reach  the  accumulated  grease  ;  and 
after  this  has  been  removed,  with  great  diffi- 
culty and  expense,  the  holes  cannot  be  properly 
stopped,  but  are  usually  covered  with  patches  of 
sheet  lead,  tied  on  with  wires,  which  afford  a 
very  imperfect  protection  against  the  escape  of 
sewer-gas.  Where  the  drain-pipe  is  so  laid  as  to 
make  it  necessary  to  cut  into  it  to  remove  grease, 
the  choked  pipe  should  be  entirely  removed,  and 
a  new  one  substituted,  and  one  or  more  Y 


PLUMBING  109 

branches  put  in,  to  enable  proper  cleaning  to 
be  done.  The  expense  of  this  will  not  be  very 
much  greater  than  that  of  cutting  a  pipe  and 
protecting  it  again,  and  it  will  soon  be  repaid  in 
the  saving  of  cost  in  subsequent  cleanings. 

The  lesser  traps,  connected  with  the  various  Fixture- 
plumbing  appliances,  which  are  necessary  to  traps' 
prevent  air  from  the  waste-pipes  from  entering 
the  rooms,  are  also  liable  to  fill  with  sediment 
or  grease ;  but,  as  they  are  usually  accessible, 
and  fitted  with  cleariout  screws,  there  is  seldom 
any  difficulty  in  clearing  them  of  deposit  when 
clogged.  The  trap  under  the  kitchen  sink  is 
most  troublesome  in  this  respect,  as  it  is  sure 
to  choke  with  grease  at  more  or  less  frequent 
intervals  ;  but  the  intervals  may  be  greatly  pro- 
longed by  an  occasional  treatment  with  caustic 
potash,  which  can  be  obtained  in  small,  iron  cans,  Potash 
and,  by  converting  the  grease  into  soft  soap, 
facilitates  its  solution  and  removal.  The  sim- 
plest way  to  apply  the  potash  is  to  turn  out 
half  the  contents  of  a  can  over  the  strainer  of 
the  sink  at  night,  and  leave  it,  with  a  slight  drip 
of  water  from  the  warm-water  faucet  .to  dissolve 
it,  and  carry  it  down  to  the  trap.  In  the  morn- 
ing the  potash  will  have  disappeared,  and  the 
flow  of  waste  water  from  the  sink  will  be  found 
much  freer  than  before.  It  is  important  to  use 
caustic  potash,  instead  of  caustic  soda,  which  is 
sometimes  substituted  for  it,  as  the  latter  forms 
with  grease  a  hard  soap,  which  is  much  less 


110  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

easily  removed  by  a  stream  of  water  than  the 
soft  soap  formed  by  the  potash.  Neither  caustic 
soda  nor  potash  should  be  allowed  to  touch 
glazed  earthenware  or  porcelain,  or  the  enamel 
of  an  enamelled-iron  sink,  as  either  of  them  will 
dissolve  the  glaze  ;  but  they  will  not  affect  brass, 
lead,  or  iron. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  return  to  the  subject  of 
waste-pipes  and  traps  in  connection  with  the 
treatment  of  plumbing  troubles ;  but  some  con- 
sideration of  the  different  appliances  used  in 
dwelling-houses  should  precede  this. 

sinks.  The   kitchen   sink,   the   pantry   sink,  and   the 

laundry  wash-trays  are  only  so  many  different 
forms  of  the  same  apparatus,  into  which  hot  and 
cold  water  are  conducted  through  pipes  and  fau- 
cets of  various  shapes,  for  use,  and  from  which, 
after  use,  the  water  flows  away  through  some 
sort  of  trap  into  the  drain.  The  kitchen  sink 
may  be  of  plain  iron,  galvanized  iron,  enamelled 
iron,  solid  earthenware,  soapstone,  or  slate,  ac- 
cording to  the  taste  of  the  owner,  and  with  or 
without  a  high  back  of  the  same  material,  to 

Kitchen  prevent  spattering  the  wall.  The  water  is  gen- 
erally all-owed  to  escape  from  a  kitchen  sink 
through  a  brass  strainer,  to  separate  the  solid 
matters  thrown  into  it,  and  prevent  them  from 
choking  the  waste-pipe ;  and,  as  there  is  never 
any  occasion  for  filling  the  kitchen  sink  with 
water,  it  has  no  overflow. 

A  pantry  sink,  on  the  contrary,  is  filled  with 


PLUMBING  111 

water  when  in  use ;  and,  in  order  to  prevent  it  Pantry 
from  overflowing,  it  is  always  provided  with 
some  sort  of  pipe,  generally  protected  with  a 
strainer,  which  opens  into  the  sink,  near  the 
top,  and  communicates  with  the  waste-pipe,  so 
that  any  surplus  water  that  may  be  drawn  es- 
capes through  this  overflow-pipe,  instead  of 
flooding  the  pantry  floor.  In  order  to  keep  the 
water  from  running  out  through  the  waste-pipe 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sink,  when  the  latter  is  to 
be  filled,  some  sort  of  plug  must  be  provided ; 
and  in  this  plug,  and  the  overflow,  are  found  the 
principal  variations  of  the  apparatus.  The  older 
pantry  sinks  were  of  tinned  copper,  with  a 
rounded  bottom,  like  a  wash-basin,  with  a  hole 
in  the  bottom,  which  could  be  closed  by  a  brass 
plug,  attached  to  a  chain,  and  an  overflow  con- 
sisting of  a  simple  pipe,  connecting  with  the 
main  waste-pipe,  and  entering  the  side  of  the 
sink,  with  a  grated  opening.  This  form  of  pan- 
try sink  had  several  disadvantages,  one  of  which 
was  that,  when  careless  servants  put  several 
dishes  at  once  into  them,  the  rounded  bottom 
afforded  the  dishes  an  opportunity  to  slide  down, 
and  come  into  collision  with  each  other,  to  their 
damage ;  while  another  defect  was  that  the  plug 
and  chain  interfered  with  the  dishes,  and,  when 
hastily  pulled  out,  often  fell  upon,  or  displaced 
dishes,  and  broke  them  ;  so  that  this  form  is 
now  generally  abandoned  in  favor  of  the  flat- 
bottomed  sink,  which  may  be  either  of  tinned 


112  THE    CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

copper,  or  of  German  silver,  the  latter  having 
the  advantage  that  its  bright  appearance  can  be 
renewed  indefinitely  by  polishing,  while  tinned 
copper  soon  loses  its  coating  of  tin.  In  order  to 
avoid  the  use  of  the  plug  and  chain,  as  well  as 
to  provide  an  overflow-pipe  more  easily  cleaned 
than  the  old  one,  most  copper  and  German-silver 
pantry  sinks  are  now  made  with  a  recess,  in 
which  stands  a  short  pipe,  open  at  the  top  and 
bottom,  the  lower  end  of  which  fits  into  the 
opening  of  the  waste-pipe.  When  this  "  stand- 
ing-waste," or  "  stand-pipe,"  is  in  place,  and  the 
water  is  turned  on,  the  sink  fills  to  the  top  of 
the  stand-pipe,  and  the  water  then  overflows 
through  it ;  while,  by  lifting  the  stand-pipe  out 
of  its  socket,  all  the  water  in  the  sink  can  escape 
through  the  waste.  As  the  stand-pipe  overflow 
is  very  much  shorter  than  the  old-fashioned  fixed 
overflow,  and  is  readily  cleaned,  its  use  prevents 
the  sickly  odor  characteristic  of  pantries  in  old 
houses,  which  proceeds,  usually,  from  the  decom- 
posing grease  which  lines  the  overflow,  and  is 
inaccessible  there.  By  recessing  the  stand-pipe 
it  is  kept  out  of  the  way  of  the  dishes,  and  the 
plug  and  chain  are,  of  course,  unnecessary  where 
it  is  used.  Most  of  the  solid  earthenware  and 
enamelled-iron  pantry  sinks,  which  are  often 
used  in  preference  to  those  of  copper,  are  fitted 
with  recessed  stand-pipes  in  the  same  way. 

As  there  is  often  a   question,  in  fitting  up  a 
new  house,  or  refitting  an  old  one,  whether  cop- 


PLUMBING  113 

per,  German  silver,  porcelain,  or  enamelled-iron 
pantry  sinks  should  be  used,  it  may  be  worth 
while  to  observe  that  the  solid  porcelain  sinks, 
although  beautifully  clean,  and  very  strong  and 
enduring,  have  a  rather  bad  reputation  for  break- 
ing dishes,  and  are,  in  consequence,  usually  fitted 
with  a  piece  of  brass  or  galvanized  wire  netting, 
which  lies  on  the  bottom  of  the  sink,  and  forms  a 
sort  of  cushion,  on  which  a  dish  may  be  dropped 
with  comparatively  little  risk  of  injury.  Enam- 
elled-iron pantry  sinks  are  also  beautifully  clean, 
although  less  durable  than  those  of  solid  porce- 
lain ;  but,  being  hard,  they  also  require  a  wire 
cushion  on  the  bottom.  Of  the  metal  sinks, 
those  of  German  silver  are  the  handsomest,  and 
also  much  the  most  expensive  ;  the  tinned-copper 
sinks  being  the  cheapest  and  least  attractive  of 
all,  but  also  the  least  destructive  of  crockery. 

The  laundry  wash-trays,  which  are  made  of 
soapstone,  slate,  enamelled  iron,  and  solid  earth- 
enware, resemble  pantry  sinks  in  having  a  pro- 
vision, usually  a  plug  and  chain,  for  retaining 
the  water  in  the  tray  ;  but,  unfortunately  for  the 
laundresses,  who,  if  they  are  forgetful,  often  find 
the  laundry  floor  flooded,  they  are  not  furnished 
with  overflows,  unless  in  very  exceptional  cases. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  any  quite 
satisfactory  material  for  wash-trays.  Soapstone, 
either  natural  or  artificial,  is  much  used,  but  some 
kinds  are  acted  upon  by  water,  and  soon  become 
pitted  and  rough.  Slate  is  not  affected  by  water, 


114  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

but  is  brittle,  and  sometimes  cracks  unaccount- 
ably ;  and  enamelled-iron  arid  solid  porcelain 
trays,  although  otherwise  clean,  durable,  and 
attractive,  have  the  disadvantage  that  they  must 
be  made  singly,  and  set  side  by  side,  so  that,  in 
the  shifting  of  the  clothes  from  one  tray  to  an- 
other which  the  laundress  finds  necessary,  water 
finds  its  way  between  the  trays  to  the  laundry 
floor.  Sets  of  trays,  both  of  porcelain  and  enam- 
elled iron,  are  provided  with  brass  caps,  to  cover 
the  joints  between  them,  but  this  is  less  effective 
than  to  make  them  with  the  front,  back,  and 
bottom  each  in  one  piece,  as  is  usually  the  case 
with  the  slate  and  soapstone  trays. 

Soapstone  and  slate  trays  usually  have  soap- 
cups,  either  of  stone  or  metal,  attached  to  them  ; 
but  separate  rubbing-boards  must  be  used.  With 
the  porcelain  and  enamelled-iron  trays  the  soap- 
cup  is  of  metal ;  and,  in  a  set  of  porcelain  trays, 
one  tray  usually  has  a  rubbing-board  formed  in 
the  porcelain. 

It  does  not  follow,  however,  that,  because  a 
set  of  wash-trays  attracts  the  owner  by  its  white- 
ness and  polish,  it  will  be  equally  pleasing  to  the 
laundress  ;  and  the  prudent  housekeeper,  in  choos- 
ing these  appliances,  will  do  well  to  consult  with 
the  person  who  is  to  use  them.  Many  laun- 
dresses dislike  the  porcelain  rubbing-boards,  as 
being  too  hard,  and  many  more  complain  that  the 
porcelain  and  enamelled  trays,  which  are  usually 
much  deeper  than  the  stone  ones,  are  so  deep 


PLUMBING  115 

that  they  cannot  reach  to  the  bottom  of  them ; 
so  that  it  is  desirable  to  forestall  complaints. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  the  laundry  is  Wash- 
usually  fitted  with  a  copper  wash-boiler,  set  in 
brickwork,  and  arranged  with  a  flue,  and  with 
feeding-door,  ash-door,  and  grate,  so  that  the 
clothes  can  be  boiled  before  they  are  washed. 
Where  it  is  practicable,  the  boiler  is  placed  close 
to  the  wash-trays,  so  that  the  clothes,  after  boil- 
ing, can  be  pulled  directly  over  into  the  wash- 
trays  for  final  treatment,  without  having  to  be 
carried,  hot  and  dripping,  across  the  room.  There 
is  no  doubt. that  the  thorough  sterilization  inci- 
dent to  the  boiling  of  the  clothes  is  hygienically 
advantageous,  but  it  is  a  severe  trial  to  delicate 
colors,  and  housekeepers  and  laundresses  are 
divided  in  their  opinions  on  the  subject. 

The  wash-basin  resembles  in  principle  the  pan-  Wash- 
try  sink,  having  means  for  retaining  the  water  in  basms- 
the  basin  when  desired,  and  an  overflow  for  carry- 
ing off  a  surplus ;  but   there  is  great  variety  in 
the  arrangement  of    these  features,    due   to  the 
efforts  of   manufacturers  to  devise  an  apparatus 
sufficiently  clean    and  neat  to  be    placed    in  or 
near  a  sleeping  room. 

There  is  more  difficulty  about  this  problem  than 
might  be  imagined.  The  "set  basins"  of  twenty 
or  thirty  years  ago,  with  their  inaccessible  over- 
flows, consisting  of  a  cluster  of  perforations  in 
the  side  of  the  basin,  communicating  with  a  pipe 
which  led  down,  and  joined  the  waste-pipe  above 


116  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

the  trap,  soon  began  to  give  forth  a  sickly  odor 
from  the  decaying  soap  with  which  the  overflow- 
pipes  rapidly  became  lined  ;  while,  if  they  were 
left  unused  long  enough  for  the  water  in  the  trap 
to  evaporate,  which  was  not  more  than  two 
weeks,  in  hot  weather,  the  drain  or  sewer  began 
to  ventilate  through  them  into  the  room  ;  so  that 
fashion,  which  once  prescribed  such  a  basin  in 
nearly  every  bedroom  of  a  good  house,  now  usu- 
ally restricts  them  to  bath-rooms  and  dressing 
rooms.  They  are,  however,  much  better  designed 
now  than  ever  before.  The  old-fashioned  inacces- 
sible overflow,  which  formerly  communicated 
with  a  lead  pipe  two  or  three  feet  long,  now, 
where  it  is  still  used,  is  formed  in  the  porcelain 
of  the  basin,  and  is  only  about  ten  inches  long, 
so  that  it  can  be  tolerably  well  washed  by  run- 
ning water  through  it ;  and,  in  many  cases,  the 
strainer,  which  prevents  cakes  of  soap  from  get- 
ting into  it,  is  hinged  or  made  otherwise  remova- 
ble, so  that  it  can  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  means 
of  a  sponge  or  rag  tied  to  a  wire.  Other  wash- 
basins are  recessed,  and  provided  with  stand-pipes, 
like  those  of  a  recessed  pantry  sink,  various  means 
being  employed  for  raising  or  inclining  the  stand- 
pipe  to  let  the  water  out  of  the  basin ;  and  still 
a  third  class  has  the  stand-pipe  outside  of  the 
basin,  but  set  in  a  larger  tube,  communicating 
with  the  basin.  This  arrangement  is  neat  in 
appearance,  and  is  satisfactory  if  the  stand-pipe 
and  the  enclosing  tube  are  kept  clean  by  frequent 


PLUMBING  117 

sponging  out,  the  cover  over  them  being  always 
made  removable  for  this  purpose.  Other  basins 
still  have  waste-plugs  in  the  bottom,  operated  by 
levers  from  the  outside,  instead  of  by  a  chain.  As 
with  the  waste  devices,  the  basin-cocks  through 
which  wash-basins  of  all  sorts  are  supplied  assume 
every  shape  that  the  manufacturers  think  will 
sell,  some  having  the  hot  and  cold  supplies  com- 
bined, with  or  without  a  mixing-ball,  while  others 
are  furnished  with  ring-cups  or  other  attachments; 
and,  where  it  is  important  to  prevent  waste  of 
water,  many  varieties  of  self-closing  cocks  are 
used.  In  general,  however,  the  simplest  forms 
are  the  most  satisfactory ;  and  self-closing  cocks, 
although  sometimes  necessary,  are  undesirable 
for  dwelling-houses,  on  account  of  the  concussion 
which  they  produce  in  the  pipes  in  closing  under 
heavy  pressure. 

In  many  respects  a  bath  is  simply  a  large  Baths, 
wash-basin,  with  supplies,  waste,  trap,  and  over- 
flow essentially  like  those  of  a  wash-basin,  but 
on  a  larger  scale.  The  best  tubs,  and  also  the 
most  expensive  ones,  are  of  solid  earthenware,  or 
porcelain,  as  it  is  incorrectly  called ;  but  such 
tubs  are  very  heavy,  and  consume  a  great  deal 
of  hot  water,  on  account  of  the  chilling  effect  of 
the  mass  of  cold  material  in  them.  Recently, 
however,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  furnish 
a  lighter  and  cheaper  porcelain  tub,  which  should 
be  a  very  desirable  article  for  dwelling-houses. 

Next  to  the  solid  porcelain  tubs,  the  ones  most 


118  THE   CARE   OF    A   HOUSE 

generally  preferred  are  those  of  enamelled  iron. 
These,  if  well  made,  are  beautifully  clean  and 
attractive,  and  are  comparatively  light,  so  that 
they  do  not  burden  the  bath-room  floor,  while 
they  do  not  seriously  chill  the  hot  water.  The 
best  qualities  are  guaranteed  by  the  makers  for 
three  years  against  the  chipping  of  the  enamel. 
The  enamelled,  as  well  as  the  solid  porcelain 
tubs,  are  set  without  wooden  casings,  so  that 
there  are  no  concealed  spaces  about  them  to  har- 
bor water-bugs. 

Many  bath-tubs  are,  however,  made  of  tinned 
copper,  set  in  a  casing  either  of  wood  or  iron, 
and  have  certain  advantages.  Besides  being 
somewhat  cheaper  than  the  enamelled  tubs, 
they  do  not  cool  the  water  in  them,  and  acci- 
dental contact  with  the  sides  does  not  chill  a 
sensitive  skin.  They  are  also  much  less  slip- 
pery, when  wet  with  soapy  water,  than  the  por- 
celain or  enamelled  tubs,  and  are  thus,  perhaps, 
better  suited  to  the  use  of  old  or  feeble  persons. 
They  soon  become  shabby,  however,  through  the 
wearing  off  of  their  coating  of  tin,  and,  although 
this  does  not  impair  their  usefulness,  it  makes 
them  less  popular  with  housekeepers  than  the 
more  modern  varieties.  In  very  old  houses  sim- 
ilar bath-tubs  are  sometimes  found,  lined  with 
lead  instead  of  copper,  the  lead  being  usually 
painted ;  and  tubs  of  painted  cast  iron  still  lin- 
ger in  old  hotels ;  but  both  of  these  have  long 
been  obsolete  for  new  work ;  and  the  silver-lined 


PLUMBING  119 

bath-tubs  of  some  of  the  New  York  mansions,  or 
the  Italian  baths,  hollowed  out  of  a  block  of 
marble,  are  not  likely  to  become  popular  here. 

Most  good  bath-tubs  are  now  fitted  with  a  Bath- 
standing  overflow,  in  place  of  the  inaccessible 
pipe  and  strainer  formerly  in  use ;  arid  it  is  com- 
mon to  place  the  stand-pipe  outside  of  the  tub, 
communicating  with  it  by  a  short  pipe.  A  few 
years  ago,  when  the  inaccessible  bath-overflow 
was  discarded,  its  place  was  taken  by  a  "  stand- 
ing-waste," consisting  of  a  stand-pipe  in  the  tub 
itself,  which -was  lifted  out  of  its  socket  to  allow 
the  water  to  run  out  of  the  tub,  serving  at  the 
same  time  as  an  overflow ;  and,  when  not  in  use, 
rested  on  two  plated  brackets  at  the  foot  of  the 
tub.  This  was  a  very  clean  and  efficient  device, 
and  is  still  extensively  used  ;  but,  unless  the  tub 
is  a  long  one,  the  stand-pipe  is  in  the  way  of  the 
bather's  feet ;  and,  being  heavy,  it  is  liable  to 
slip  out  of  wet  hands,  and  chip  the  enamel  of 
the  tub,  or  make  dents  in  a  copper  lining.  To 
get  the  pipe  out  of  the  way  of  the  feet,  recessed 
tubs  were  then  made,  similar  to  the  recessed 
pantry  sinks  still  so  popular,  and  the  standing- 
waste  was  often  set  permanently  in  place,  requir- 
ing only  to  be  turned,  or  lifted  slightly,  to  allow 
the  water  to  escape.  This  arrangement  is  more 
convenient  than  the  plain  tub  and  stand-pipe, 
but  the  recess  requires  special  cleaning  to  re- 
move the  soapy  scum  which  collects  in  it ;  and 
the  outside  overflow,  which  can  be  lifted  out 


120  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

and  cleaned  occasionally,  in  connection  with  a 
plain  tub,  and  a  plug  and  chain  waste,  is  gener- 
ally satisfactory. 

For  supplying  bath-tubs  plain  and  combination 
cocks  in  great  variety  are  sold,  with  and  without 
ring-cups,  soap-cups,  and  shampoo  and  shower 
attachments ;  but,  for  dwelling-houses,  separate 
hot  and  cold  water  supplies  are  usually  most 
desirable.  In  hotels,  where  the  hot  and  cold 
water  are  under  the  same  pressure,  combination 
bath-cocks  answer  very  well ;  but  the  system  of 
heating  water  in  private  houses  is  totally  differ- 
ent from  that  used  in  hotels,  the  hot  water  being 
usually  under  much  lower  pressure  than  the  cold 
water,  and  the  result  of  this  is  that  the  cold 
water  forces  its  way  first  out  of  a  combination- 
cock,  pushing  back  the  hot  water,  so  that  a  mix- 
ture of  agreeable  temperature  can  only  be  obtained 
in  the  tub  by  drawing  hot  and  cold  water  alter- 
nately ;  and,  in  using  a  shower  or  shampoo 
attachment,  the  trouble  is  intensified.  In  per- 
manent shower-baths,  which  are  rapidly  becom- 
ing popular  for  private  houses,  this  difficulty  is 
avoided,  to  some  degree,  by  providing  a  reservoir 
overhead,  in  which  the  hot  and  cold  water  can 
mix  before  escaping,  a  "  mixing-ball  "  being  often 
added  to  facilitate  the  process. 

Besides  the  shower,  needle-baths,  in  which  the 
bather  stands  in  the  centre  of  sets  of  perforated 
pipes  forming  nearly  a  circle  around  him,  are 
often  used ;  but  with  these,  as  with  the  shower, 


PLUMBING  121 

the  result  is  likely  to  be  disappointing  unless  the 
pressure  of  the  hot  and  cold  water  can  be  equal- 
ized by  means  similar  to  those  employed  in  hotels 
and  public  baths. 

The  last  important  plumbing  appliance  remain-  Water- 
ing to  be  described  is  the  water-closet,  the  most  c 
unsatisfactory  and  dangerous  of  all  if  improperly 
made  or  set,  or  badly  managed.  As  the  pan- 
closets,  the  valve-closets  of  the  Hellyer  type,  and 
the  plunger-closets  of  the  Jennings,  Demarest, 
and  other  varieties  are  no  longer  in  the  market, 
and  are  found  only  in  old  houses,  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  say  much  about  them.  The  pan-closet, 
with  its  huge  receiver  full  of  filth  under  the  pan, 
is  incurably  bad,  and,  where  found  in  an  old 
house,  should  be  immediately  replaced  by  some- 
thing better.  The  valve-closets,  if  well  put  in, 
are  practically  safe  as  long  as  the  valve  remains 
tight ;  and  the  plunger-closets  can  be  kept  in  safe 
condition  by  lifting  out  the  plunger  frequently, 
and  cleaning  it  and  the  plunger  chamber. 
Where,  however,  any  of  these  old-fashioned 
closets  become  so  worn  that  the  water  is  not  held 
in  the  basin,  they  should  be  discarded,  and  some- 
thing more  modern  set  in  place  of  them. 

Among  the  modern  closets  there  is  nothing,  Short 
perhaps,  more  satisfactory,  considering  its  sim- 
plicity and  freedom  from  repairs,  than  the  short 
flushing-rim  hopper,  which  can  be  had,  including 
the  trap,  in  a  single  piece  of  porcelain  (Fig.  17), 
or  with  a  porcelain  basin,  bolted  or  clamped  to 


122 


THE    CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


a  lead  or  iron  trap  (Fig.  18).  It  is  curious  that 
the  first  water-closets  made,  after  the  invention 
of  the  trap,  about  1840,  rendered  it  practicable  to 
have  such  an  apparatus  within  the  walls  of  a 
dwelling-house,  were  substantially  the  same  as 
the  modern  hopper,  the  improvements  consist- 
ing in  the  substitution  of  earthenware  or  porce- 
lain, as  a  material,  for  the  cast  iron  of  the  early 


FIG.  17. 

hoppers,  and  the  addition  of  the  flushing-rim. 
In  its  present  form,  the  short  hopper  presents 
the  great  advantage  of  having  no  moving  or  con- 
cealed parts,  while  the  contents  of  the  basin  re- 
main in  plain  sight  until  they  are  washed  entirely 
out  beyond  the  trap,  never  to  return  or  give 
trouble,  by  a  flush  of  water  which,  entering  on  all 
sides  through  the  flushing-rim,  and  descending 
with  considerable  force,  washes  the  sides  of  the 
basin.  Unfortunately  for  the  popularity  of  an 


PLUMBING 


123 


excellent  apparatus,  the  efficiency  of  this  wash- 
ing action  of  the  flush  is  not  all  that  could  be 
desired.  If  the  closet  is  used  when  the  sides  of 
the  basin  are  dry,  they  will  receive  a  stain  which 
the  force  of  the  flushing-water  is  insufficient  to 
remove ;  and  such  stains,  although  really  harm- 
less, are  unpleasant  in  appearance.  They  can  be 
avoided  by  a  preliminary  flushing  of  the  basin,  to 


FIG.  18. 

wet  the  sides  and  prevent  adhesion  ;  but  this  is 
generally  forgotten,  so  that  short  hoppers,  in  prac- 
tice, need  frequent  scrubbing  to  keep  them  pre- 
sentable. 

A  modification   of  the  short  hopper   has  the  Wash-down 
bend  of  the  trap  raised,  so   as  to  hold  a  larger  c 
body  of  water  in  the  basin,  and  in  this  way  pre- 
vent the  staining  of  the   sides  (Fig.  19) ;   but  a 
strong  flush   is  needed   to   carry   this   increased 
volume  of  water  over  the  additional  height  of 


124 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


the  bend  of  the  trap,  without  leaving  floating 
material  in  the  basin. 

To  meet  the  two  requirements,  of  keeping  a 
large  volume  of  water  in  the  basin,  and  of  having 
it  entirely  removed  by  the  flush,  the  principle  of 
the  siphon  is  now  extensively  applied  to  closets. 
Every  one  knows  that  a  bent  tube,  having  one  leg 
longer  than  the  other,  will  draw  all  the  water  out 


FIG.  19. 


of  a  tumbler  into  which  the  short  leg  is  plunged, 
if  the  tube  is  once  filled  with  water,  by  sucking 
at  the  long  end  or  otherwise.  In  applying  this 
principle  to  a  water-closet,  the  trap  and  the  waste- 
pipe  beyond  form  the  siphon,  the  basin  forming 
a  part  of  the  short  leg ;  and  the  problem  to  be 
solved  is  how  to  fill  the  bore  of  the  pipe  beyond 
the  trap  completely  with  water,  so  as  to  create  a 
suction  which  will  bring  the  siphon  action  into 
play,  and  draw  over,  by  atmospheric  pressure,  all 


PLUMBING  125 

the  contents  of  the  short  leg  of  the  siphon,  includ- 
ing the  basin.  In  most  closets,  this  result  is- 
accomplished  by  means  of  a  "  jet,"  which  is  seen 
as  a  small  hole  opening  almost  at  the  bottom  of 
the  basin  on  the  side  opposite  the  trap,  and  is 
supplied  through  a  conduit  formed  in  the  earthen- 
ware of  the  basin,  communicating  with  the  flush 
ing-rim.  When  the  closet  is  flushed,  a  part  of 


FIG.  20. 


the  flushing-water  rushes  down  this  conduit  and 
out  of  the  jet,  which  is  so  formed  as  to  throw 
the  wrater  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  trap. 
Partly  by  the  additional  quantity  of  water  so 
supplied,  but  still  more  by  the  force  with  which 
it  is  projected  (Fig.  20),  enough  liquid  is  thrown 
at  once  over  the  bend  of  the  trap  to  fill  the  waste- 
pipe  beyond,  whicli  is  slightly  contracted  for  the 
purpose ;  and,  as  soon  as  this  pipe  is  completely 
filled,  the  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  surface  of 


126  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

the  water  in  the  basin  comes  into  action,  and  the 
whole  is  sucked  over  the  bend  of  the  trap  into 
the  waste-pipe.  The  air  rushes  after  it,  and 
again  fills  the  pipe  behind  the  descending  column 
of  water,  leaving  the  apparatus  ready  for  a  repe- 
tition of  the  process  ;  while,  as  the  flushing-valve 
closes,  enough  more'  water  trickles  in  to  refill  the 
basin  to  the  normal  depth. 

This  is  an  excellent  type  of  closet,  and  is  de- 
servedly popular,  being  clean  and  efficient,  and 
having  no  moving  parts  to  get  out  of  order,  and 
no  concealed  spaces  in  which  filth  can  collect  un- 
seen. The  most  serious  objection  to  it  is  that  the 
jet-tube,  being  below  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  is 
not  cleared  of  water  by  sponging  out  the  trap, 
and  unless  special  means  are  taken  to  remove  the 
water,  in  case  the  house  is  to  be  left  vacant  in 
winter,  it  will  freeze  in  the  jet-tube,  and  destroy 
the  closet.  It  is  possible  to  remove  the  water  in 
the  jet-tube  by  means  of  a  small  sponge,  tied  to 
a  wire,  and  inserted  through  the  orifice  of  the  jet 
after  the  basin  has  been  sponged  out ;  or  by  un- 
screwing the  brass  plug  on  the  outside  of  the 
closet  which  some  manufacturers  provide  for  the 
purpose  ;  but  plumbers  usually  unscrew  the  bolts 
and  couplings,  and  take  the  closet  up,  and  reverse 
it,  so  as  to  let  the  water  run  out  of  the  jet-tube. 
The  closet  is  reset  in  its  proper  position  either 
immediately,  or  when  the  house  is  again  occupied 
in  the  spring ;  but  there  is  always  some  uncer- 
tainty whether  it  will  be  reset  with  due  care  and 


PLUMBING  127 

skill,  and  a  few  minutes'  time  spent  with  a  wire 
and  a  little  sponge  in  getting  the  water  out  of  the 
orifice  of  the  jet,  instead  of  taking  up  the  closet, 
will  often  save  the  householder  the  unwelcome 
experience  of  finding  the  closet  broken,  through 
careless  tightening  of  the  bolts  and  couplings  in 
resetting,  or  of  suffering  all  summer  from  leak- 
age of  sewer-gas,  owing  to  imperfect  puttying  of 
the  joint  around  the  flange  of  the  closet  when  re- 
set. In  order  to  avoid  the  risk  of  these  troubles, 
without  spending  time  in  the  slow  sponging  out 
of  the  jet-tube,  some  plumbers  simply  throw  a 
handful  of  salt  into  the  basin,  without  even  spong- 
ing this  out.  The  salt  dissolves  in  the  water  in 
the  basin,  and  finds  its  way  into  that  in  the  jet- 
tube  ;  and,  as  a  strong  solution  of  salt  does  not 
freeze  into  a  hard  mass,  but,  if  at  all,  only  into  a 
sort  of  icy  mud,  this  will  protect  the  closet  against 
bursting  by  freezing.  If  the  closet-basin  is  made 
of  "  vitreous  china,"  a  sort  of  porcelain  much 
used,  and  very  desirable  for  such  purposes,  the 
salt  can  be  used  with  safety  ;  but  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  salt  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in 
contact  with  ordinary  earthenware,  or  to  touch 
brass  sockets,  plugs,  or  other  fittings. 

A  more  recent  form  of  siphon-closet  dispenses  Dececo 
with  the  jet,  and  obtains  the  filling  of  the  waste-  closets 
pipe  beyond  the  trap,  essential  to  siphonic  action, 
by  making  a  sharp  bend  in  it  (Fig.  21),  so  as  to 
impede  the  current  momentarily,  and  throw  the 
water  back  on  itself,  without  diminishing  mate- 


128 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


rially  the  size  of  the  pipe.  This  answers  the  pur- 
pose of  setting  up  siphonic  action  perfectly,  and 
the  fact  that  the  closet  has  no  jet- tube  to  freeze 
and  burst,  and  can  be  entirely  cleared  of  water 
by  sponging  out  the  basin,  is  often  a  great  advan- 
tage. 


FIG.  21. 


Another  type  of  closet,  which  formerly  enjoyed 
a  rather  undeserved  popularity,  is  the  "  washout," 
or,  as  it  is  often  called,  from  the  trade-name  of 
the  best  known  pattern,  the  "  Brighton  "  closet 
(Fig.  22).  This  has  a  shallow  basin,  with  flush- 
ing-rim, so  arranged  as  to  drive  the  water  stand- 
ing in  the  basin  either  backward  or  forward, 
according  to  the  pattern  used,  into  a  trap,  which 
is  formed  in  the  earthenware  under  the  basin.  In 
some  forms  of  this  closet  the  trap  is  nearly  in- 
accessible, and  in  all  it  is  practically  out  of  sight ; 
so  that,  even  if  the  basin  is  clean,  the  hidden  trap 
may  be  very  foul,  and,  when  in  that  condition, 


PLUMBING 


129 


sends  its  odors  freely  into  the  room.  With  a 
sponge,  tied  to  a  stout  wire,  the  trap  can  be  easily 
cleaned,  if  necessary,  so  that  a  washout  closet, 
properly  cared  for,  is  satisfactory  enough  ;  but  it 
is  better,  in  plumbing  appliances,  that  the  need 
of  cleaning  should  be  manifest  to  the  eye  before 
it  makes  itself  known  to  the  nose. 


FIG.  22. 

Nearly  all  modern  water-closets  can  be  had  Local  vents 
with  "  local-vent "  connections,  by  which  air  may 
be  drawn  from  the  basin  of  the  closet,  directly 
under  the  seat,  to  some  heated  flue.  In  most 
cases  these  local  vents,  if  the  closet  has  been 
ordered  with  them,  are  simply  plugged  up  by  the 
plumber  ;  but  it  is  very  desirable  to  connect  them, 
by  lead,  copper,  or  other  pipe,  with  some  flue  that 
can  be  warmed.  The  range-flue  is  usually  chosen, 
and  is  the  most  suitable,  if  its  draught  is  good 


130 


THE   CARE   OF    A   HOUSE 


enough  not  to  be  checked  by  the  vent-pipe.  Al- 
though the  local  vent  is  small,  being,  for  house 
water-closets,  from  two  to  three  inches  in  diame- 
ter, the  slow  current  through  it  does  much  to 
purify  the  air  of  the  small  rooms  in  which  water- 
closets  are  placed. 

As  a  rule,  water-closets  in  dwelling-houses 
receive  their  supply  of  water  from  a  copper-lined 
cistern,  or  tank,  usually  supported  by  brackets 
on  the  wall  above  the  closet,  into  which  the  water 
flows  through  a  small  pipe,  and  a  ball-cock, 
arranged  with  a  float,  which  shuts  the  water  off 
when  the  cistern  is  full ;  while  a  cistern-valve, 
which  can  be  lifted  by  pulling  a  chain  or  rod 
attached  to  a  lever,  allows  the  water  to  flow  out 
rapidly  for  flushing.  The  cistern  is  usually  pro- 
vided with  an  overflow  connected  with  the  flush- 
pipe,  so  that,  if  the  ball-cock 
fails  to  act  properly  in  shut- 
ting off  the  water,  the  surplus 
will  escape  through  the  water- 
closet  to  the  drain,  instead  of 
overflowing  on  the  floor. 

Every  plumbing  fixture 
must  have  a  trap  of  some 
kind  to  prevent  foul  air  from 
coming  back  from  the  drain 
through  its  waste  outlet.  In 
its  simplest  form  a  trap  is 
merely  a  downward  bend  in  a  pipe,  so  deep  that 
the  upper  wall  of  the  pipe  dips  into  the  water 


FIG.  23. 


PLUMBING  131 

held  in  the  bend,  the  extent  to  which  it  dips 
being  known  as  the  depth  of  the  seal.  With 
slight  modifications  this  is  the  trap  (Fig.  23)  most 
commonly  used  for  wash-basins,  water-closets, 
and  other  apparatus  where  grease  is  not  likely 
to  get  into  the  waste. 

For  kitchen    sinks,   pantry    sinks,   and   wash-  Round 
trays  the  plain  dip,   or   S  trap   would    soon  be  traps' 
choked   with  grease  or   sediment,   so  that   it  is 
usual    to    furnish    these    with    a 
«  round  trap,"  consisting  of  a  lead 
cylinder,  from  four  to  six  inches 
in   diameter,  with   an    inlet-pipe 
near  the  bottom,  and  an  outlet- 
pipe  near  the  top  (Fig.  24).    The- cylinder  is  large 
enough  to  accommodate  a  considerable  accumu- 
lation of  grease,  without  cutting  off  entirely  the 
flow  of  wrater  through  the  trap.     To  clear  out 
the  grease,  when  necessary,  round  traps  are  al- 
ways fitted  with  brass  trap-screws,  at  least  four 
inches  in  diameter,  this  being  the  smallest  size 
that  will  admit  the  hand  ;  and  it  is  not  a  diffi- 
cult matter  to  unscrew  the   trap-screw  with  a 
wrench,   dig    out    the   white   mass   of    solidified 
grease,  and  close  the  opening  again.     For  baths, 
although  accumulations  of  grease  are  not  to  be 
feared,  it  is  very  common  to  use  a  round  trap, 
set  in  the  floor,  with  the  trap-screw  flush  with 
the  surface  of  the  floor,  and  either  left  exposed, 
or  covered  with  a  nickelled  plate.     As  the  waste 
outlet  of  a  bath  is  necessarily  near  the  floor,  this 


132  THE   CARE   OF  A   HOUSE 

form  of  trap  is  more  conveniently  connected  than 
an  S  trap  would  be,  while  the  four-inch  trap- 
screw  in  the  floor  makes  it  easy  to  recover  rings, 
precious  stones,  and  other  articles  which  are  fre- 
quently lost  in  baths.  The  stones  from  rings 
also  often  fall  into  basin-wastes,  but  as  the  basin 
trap  is  always,  in  a  modern  house,  high  above 
the  floor,  the  small  screw  which  is  generally  set 
in  the  bottom  of  S  traps,  as  shown  in  Figure  23, 
can  be  removed,  when  everything  in  the  trap 
will  fall  into  a  dish  or  pail  previously  set  under- 
neath to  receive  it.  Water-closets  often  have 
their  trap  formed  in  the  porcelain  itself,  and,  as 
the  waterway  is  always  large  enough  to  admit 
the  hand,  they  are  accessible  for  cleaning  or  for 
recovering  lost  objects,  without  trap-screws. 

An  inspection  of  the  trap  under  any  plumbing 
fixture  will  show  the  inlet-pipe  and  outlet-pipe, 
but,  in  most  cases,  a  third  pipe  will  be  found, 
extending  upward,  either  from  the  trap  itself,  or 
from  the  outlet-pipe,  near  the  trap.  This  pipe 
is  the  back  vent,  and  is  intended  to  prevent  the 
removal  of  the  trapping-water  by  siphonage. 
The  action  of  a  siphon  water-closet,  by  which,  as 
soon  as  the  waste-pipe  beyond  the  trap  is  filled 
with  water,  all  the  contents  of  the  basin  are 
drawn  over  by  atmospheric  pressure,  shows  what 
may  happen  in  any  S  trap,  or  in  a  round  trap 
partly  filled  with  grease,  if  the  bore  of  the  outlet 
pipe  should  become  completely  filled  with  water, 
as  may  easily  happen  if  a  slight  obstruction 


PLUMBING  133 

should  momentarily  check  the  flow.  In  order  to 
prevent  the  loss  of  the  trapping-water  in  this 
way,  and  the  consequent  opening  of  a  passage 
for  sewer-gas  through  the  trap,  an  air-pipe,  or 
back  vent,  is  carried  from  the  outlet  side  of  the 
trap  to  a  main  air-pipe,  through  which  air  can 
be  drawn  to  supply  the  vacuum  caused  by  the 
descent  of  a  solid  column  of  water,  without  dis- 
turbing the  sealing-water  of  the  trap. 

The  main  waste-pipes,  in  dwelling-houses,  are  Pipes, 
almost  always  of  cast  iron,  put  together  with 
"  caulked  joints "  of  melted  lead,  wrought-iron 
pipe,  with  joints  screwed  together,  being  used 
only  for  public  buildings,  and  for  the  most  expen- 
sive class  of  dwellings ;  and  the  main  air-pipes, 
which  are  closely  connected  with  the  waste-pipes, 
are  usually  of  the  same  material.  The  smaller 
waste  and  air  pipes,  and  the  supply-pipes,  may 
be  of  lead,  iron,  or  brass,  or  of  a  mixture  of  these 
materials.  As  waste  and  air  pipes  do  not  have 
to  endure  great  pressure,  the  smaller  ones  are 
usually  of  lead,  which  has  the  advantage  of  being 
easily  joined,  and  being  practically  exempt  from 
corrosion ;  but  supply-pipes  are  often  subjected 
to  great  pressure,  which  only  a  very  thick  lead 
pipe  can  resist,  and  some  waters,  particularly 
rain-water,  or  very  pure  river  or  spring  water, 
dissolve  lead  in  sufficient  quantity  to  make  them 
slightly  poisonous.  Where  this  is  the  case,  the 
best  material  for  supply-pipes,  although  an  expen- 
sive one,  is  brass,  Iron  supply-pipes,  which  are 


134 


THE    CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


Tin-lined 
pipes. 


Brass  pipes 


Nickel- 
plating. 


much  cheaper,  sooner  or  later  fill  up  with  rust. 
Galvanizing  or  enamelling  will  postpone  the 
rusting,  often  for  a  considerable  period,  but  gal- 
vanized pipes  frequently  impart  an  injurious  con- 
tamination to  the  water  that  runs  through  them. 
The  tin-lined  and  lead-lined  pipes,  which  are  now 
much  used,  are  good  if  put  in  with  care,  but,  if 
handled  by  inferior  plumbers,  who  cut  them  with- 
out proper  caution,  the  iron  ma}^  be  exposed  at 
a  joint ;  and  the  pipe  may  fill  with  rust  from  a 
small  surface  of  iron  left  bare  in  this  way,  as 
the  galvanic  action  between  the  metal  of  the 
lining  and  the  iron  pipe  assists  greatly  the  corro- 
sion of  the  latter. 

Brass  pipes,  on  the  contrary,  are  not  subject 
to  corrosion  by  any  ordinary  water.  They  are, 
however,  unless  annealed,  liable  to  internal 
strains,  which  often  cause  them  to  split  with- 
out warning,  and  they  should  be  of  "iron-pipe 
sizes,"  the  light  pipes  known  under  the  name  of 
"  plumbers'  tubing  "  being  too  thin  to  make  sub- 
stantial joints;  but,  if  of  proper  weight  and 
quality,  and  intelligently  put  together,  and  kept 
from  freezing,  brass  supply-pipes  are  practically 
everlasting. 

It  is  usual  in  "  open  plumbing  "  to  make  all  the 
traps  and  pipes,  including  supply,  waste,  and  air 
pipes,  which  are  exposed  in  bath-rooms,  of  brass, 
nickel-plated,  for  the  sake  of  the  bright  and  clean 
appearance  which  they  present ;  but  nickel-plat- 
ing, where  it  cannot  be  easily  reached  for  clean- 


PLUMBING  135 

ing,  soon  becomes  covered  with  oxide,  of  a  dingy, 
greenish  gray,  and  it  is  becoming  common,  in- 
stead of  plating  such  pipes,  to  bronze  them  with 
silver  or  aluminum  bronze,  which  can  be  applied 
to  lead  and  iron  pipes,  as  well  as  to  those  of 
brass,  and  is  easily  renewed,  if  necessary. 

Even  where  the  cold-water  supply-pipes  are  Hot-water 
of  lead,  it  is  common  to  make  the  hot-water  plpes 
pipes  of  brass,  for  the  reason  that  lead  hot-water 
pipes,  through  alternate  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion, as  the  hot  water  is  drawn  through  them, 
gradually  acquire  a  series  of  bends  between  their 
supports,  which  are  unsightly,  and  check  the  flow 
of  water  through  them ;  so  that  the  strong  and 
rigid  brass  pipes  are  more  satisfactory.  Brass 
hot-water  pipes  must,  however,  be  put  up  with 
angles  in  their  course,  so  that  the  expansion  and 
contraction  may  be  taken  up  by  the  spring  of 
the  angle,  as  a  long,  straight  pipe,  held  firmly  at 
the  ends,  will  soon  leak  at  the  joints,  through  the 
strain  which  is  brought  upon  them  by  contrac- 
tion and  expansion. 

As  hot-water  pipes  often  give  trouble  in  other  Hot-water 
ways  besides   leaking  at  the  joints,  it  is  desir- 
able  to  understand  the  principles  upon  which  they 
are,  or  should  be,  put  in.     The  manner  in  which 
the  water  in  the  bath-boiler  is  heated  from  the 
water-front  in  the  kitchen  stove  has  already  been 
described  in  treating  of  the  latter.     The   bath- 
boiler  itself  is  a  copper  or  galvanized-iron  cylin-  Bath- 
der,  mounted  on  a  stand,  with  a  coupling  in  the  bollers- 


136  THE   CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 

side,  to  receive  the  flow-pipe  from  the  water-front 
of  the  range,  another  in  or  near  the  bottom,  for 
the  return-pipe  to  the  range,  and  three  or  more 
couplings  in  the  top.  The  middle  coupling  on 
top  connects  with  a  tube  which  extends  down, 
inside  the  boiler,  nearly  to  the  bottom.  This  is 
used  for  the  supply  of  fresh  cold  water  which 
enters  the  boiler  to  replace  the  hot  water  that  is 
drawn  off ;  and  the  tube  inside  the  boiler  serves 
to  conduct  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  without 
allowing  it  to  mix  with  the  hot  water  which 
occupies  the  upper  portion  of  the  latter.  The 
other  couplings  in  the  top  of  the  boiler  are  for 
the  pipes  which  carry  the  hot  water  over  the 
house.  The  action  of  the  boiler,  as  thus  fitted 
up,  is  very  simple.  So  long  as  no  hot  wrater  is 
drawn  from  it,  the  water  that  it  contains  simply 
circulates  through  the  water-front  of  the  range 
and  back  again,  getting  gradually  hotter  in  the 
process ;  but,  as  soon  as  any  hot  water  is  drawn 
from  the  boiler,  by  means  of  the  pipes  which 
extend  from  its  top,  an  equivalent  amount  of  cold 
water  descends  through  the  inside  tube  to  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler,  and  thence  to  the  water- 
front, where  it  takes  its  place  in  the  general 
circulation. 

Strictly  speaking,  this  constitutes  all  the  nec- 
essary part  of  a  hot-water  system,  including  a 
provision  for  supplying  fresh  water  as  hot  water 
is  drawn  off ;  a  water-front  for  heating  the  water ; 
a  boiler,  or  more  correctly,  a  reservoir,  for  stor- 


PLUMBING  137 

ing  a  reserve  of  water  heated  in  the  range,  and  a 
system  of  pipes  to  distribute  the  water  from  the 
boiler;  but,  if  no  circulation  is  provided  except 
that  between  the  water-front  and  the  boiler,  the 
pipes  above  the  boiler  will  be  cold  ;  and,  on  open- 
ing a  hot-water  faucet  anywhere,  a  certain  amount 
of  cold  water,  depending  upon  the  length  of  the 
pipe,  must  be  drawn  before  any  hot  water  reaches 
the  faucet. 

To   obviate  this  annoyance,  it  is  usual  to  pro-  Secondary 

.  ,  .  ..  circulation. 

vide,  where  circumstances  permit,  one  or  more 
secondary  circulations,  by  which  the  main  hot- 
water  pipes,  after  reaching  the  highest  fixture 
that  they  supply,  are  carried  over  in  a  loop,  and 
brought  down  again  to  the  boiler,  entering  the 
latter  near  the  bottom.  In  this  way  the  water 
in  the  loop  is  constantly  rising  hot  from  the  boiler, 
passing  through  the  circulation-pipe,  and  back 
again,  only  slightly  cooled,  to  the  boiler ;  so  that 
hot  water  can  be  drawn  immediately  from  any  fau- 
cet on  the  line.  This  arrangement  is,  ho  wev  er,  only 
practicable  where  the  hot-water  system  is  sup- 
plied from  a  tank  in  the  upper  story,  for  the  reason 
that  bubbles  of  air  collect  in  an  upward  bend  of 
any  pipe  conveying  water,  and  will  stop  the  cir- 
culation unless  they  are  allowed  to  escape;  so  that, 
where  a  circulation-pipe  is  brought  back  to  the 
boiler  from  the  highest  part  of  a  hot-water  system 
it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  preserve  the  flow 
through  it,  to  carry  up  from  the  highest  point  an  Expansion- 
expansion-pipe,  which  is  extended  above  the  tank  plpe 


138  THE  CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

supplying  the  hot-water  system,  so  that  it  can  be 
left  open  without  allowing  the  water  to  overflow. 
In  practice  the  expansion-pipe  is  usually  termi- 
nated by  a  bend,  the  mouth  of  which  is  just  above 
the  overflow  of  the  tank,  so  that,  if  foam  and 
bubbles  rise  through  it,  as  they  are  likely  to  do 
with  some  waters,  the  drip  will  be  carried  safely 
away. 

With  a  "  pressure  system  "  of  hot-water  sup- 
ply, in  which  the  boiler  takes  water  directly  from 
the  street  main,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
tank,  secondary  circulations  are  impracticable,  as 
the  expansion-pipe  necessary  for  clearing  them  of 
air  would  continually  overflow ;  so  that,  with  a 
system  of  this  sort,  a  preliminary  flow  of  cold 
water  from  the  hot-water  pipes  is  unavoidable. 


CHAPTER    IX 

TEOUBLES    WITH     PLUMBING,    AND     THEIR    EEMEDY 

THE  disorders  to  which  plumbing  in  houses 
is  subject  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : 
those  connected  with  the  drains  and  waste- 
pipes  ;  those  which  appear  in  connection  with 
the  supply-pipes ;  and  those  which ,  affect  fixtures 
of  various  kinds. 

Naturally,  the  first  symptom  of  a  defect  in  the  Defects  in 
waste-pipes  of  a  house  is  a  disagreeable  odor, 
the  locality  of  which  will,  to  a  certain  extent, 
indicate  its  cause.  In  modern  houses  all  the 
pipes,  including  the  waste-pipes,  are  exposed  to 
view,  or  can  easily  be  examined  by  removing  a 
casing  of  some  sort ;  and,  unless  the  trouble  is 
quite  evidently  connected  with  some  fixture, 
it  is  well  to  trace  in  this  way  the  whole  length 
of  the  main  soil-pipe,  examining  particularly  the 
joints.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  that  settlement, 
or  the  shrinkage  of  the  floors,  has  pulled  the  lead 
with  which  the  joints  of  cast-iron  pipes  are  made  imperfect 
tight  partly  out  of  the  socket ;  and,  in  this  case,  jomts' 
a  few  minutes'  work  with  a  caulking  tool  will 
drive  the  lead  back  into  its  place,  and  make  all 
tight  again ;  and,  even  where  the  lead  has  not 
visibly  started  from  its  place,  a  little  caulking 

139 


140  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

will  generally  make  a  joint  tight  about  which 
there  is  a  suspicious  odor. 

Putty.  Where  it  is  impracticable  to  caulk  thoroughly 

a  joint  in  a  cast-iron  pipe  which  has  been  found 
to  leak  slightly,  the  householder  need  not  hesi- 
tate to  apply  putty  around  it,  over  the  lead. 
Although  architects  refuse  to  accept  from  a 
contractor  any  cast-iron  waste-pipes  which  show 
putty  in  the  joints,  on  account  of  the  danger 
that  the  joint  may  have  been  made  tight  with 
putty,  instead  of  the  more  permanent  lead,  there 
are  many  cases  where  the  slight  leaks  which  de- 
velop themselves,  in  course  of  time,  in  all  lines 
of  cast-iron  pipe  exposed  to  the  variations  of 
temperature  in  dwelling-houses,  may  be  perfectly 
cured  in  this  way ;  and  the  putty  can  be  re- 
newed as  occasion  may  require.  Only  the  very 
best  putty  should  be  used  for  such  purposes,  the 
mixture  of  marble  dust  and  petroleum  sold  as 
cheap  putty  affording  no  security ;  and  in  base- 
ments and  other  places  where  rats  are  likely  to 
get  at  the  putty,  it  should  be  mixed  with  red 
lead,  to  prevent  theni  from  gnawing  it  away. 

Air-pipes.  If  the  joints  of  the  soil-pipe  are  found  to  be 

tight,  and  no  small  "  sand-holes  "  are  discovered 
in  the,  pipes  or  fittings,  the  air-pipes,  which  com- 
municate freely  with  the  soil-pipe,  and  are  of  the 
same  material,  and  jointed  in  the  same  way, 
should  be  examined,  and,  if  necessary,  subjected 
to  similar  treatment. 

By-pass.  Occasionally,  although  not  very  often  in  modern 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     141 


plumbing  work,  a  dangerous  leak  of  sewer-gas  is 
caused  by  improper  arrangement  of  pipes,  form- 
ing a  "  by-pass."  In  Figure  25,  suppose  W  to  be 
a  wash-basin,  with  an  S  trap,  S,  under  it,  and  B 
to  be  a  bath,  with  a  round  trap,  T,  under  the 
floor.  Both  traps  are  back-vented  by  the  air- 
pipes,  A,  A,  connected  into  a  main  air-pipe,  P. 
If  the  waste  from  the  wash-basin  is  connected 
into  the  bath-waste  beyond  the  trap,  as  it  should 
be,  no  sewer-gas  can  escape  either  into  the  wash- 
basin or  the  bath,  so  long  as  the  traps  are  full ; 
but  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  careless  or 
ignorant  plumber,  to  save  a  little  pipe,  or  give 
the  job  a  neater  appearance,  will  connect  with 
the  bath-waste  inside  the  trap,  T,  as  shown  in  the 

figure,  thus  opening  '  a 
free  passage  for  the 
sewer-air  which  comes 
up  the  bath-waste,  and 
is  stopped  by  the  water 
in  the  trap,  T,  through 
the  two  air-pipes  and 


LJ 


Fia.  25. 


142  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

the  basin-waste  to  the  "  house  side  "  of  the  bath 
waste,  through  which  it  pours  in  a  stream,  enter- 
ing the  room  by  the  waste  and  overflow  of  the 
bath.  Such  a  defect  as  this  is  not  generally 
shown  by  the  water-test,  as  minor  connections 
are  made  after  the  main  pipes  have  been  tested, 
but  it  may  have  very  serious  consequences ;  and, 
if  a  by-pass  of  this  sort  should  be  discovered,  the 
waste  and  overflow  openings  through  which  it 
allows  sewer-gas  to  escape  should  be  securely 
plugged  with  corks,  or  covered  with  strong  paper, 
pasted  on,  until  a  plumber  can  be  called  in  to 
make  the  necessary  changes  in  the  pipes. 
Foot  vent.  If  none  of  these  defects  are  found  to  explain 
an  unpleasant  smell  about  the  waste-pipes,  the 
trouble  may  come  from  the  outside.  Where  a 
main  trap  is  used  on  a  house-drain,  it  was  for- 
merly the  practice  to  contrive  a  "  foot  vent," 
just  inside  the  trap  (Fig.  26),  to  supply  fresh 
air  to  the  system  of  waste-pipes  in  the  house. 
Where  the  main  trap  is  placed  in  a  pit  outside 
the  house,  the  foot  vent  usually  opens  into  the 
pit.  Where  the  main  trap  is  inside  the  house, 
the  foot  vent  is  commonly  carried  up  a  few 
feet  on  the  cellar  wall,  and  then  turned  out- 
ward, ending  at  a  grated  opening  in  the  wall 
of  the  house ;  or  is  brought  up  through  the 
ground,  close  to  the  outside  of  the  house,  and 
covered  with  an  open  cap.  As  the  soil-pipe 
always  extends  through  the  roof,  and  the  in- 
side of  the  house  is  generally  warmer  than  the 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     143 

outside  air,  there  is,  at  ordinary  times,  an  up- 
ward current  through  the  soil-pipe,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, an  inward  draught  at  the  foot  vent ; 
but  the  sudden  discharge  of  any  considerable 
quantity  of  water  from  one  of  the  house  fixtures 
temporarily  reverses  the  current,  the  rush  of  water 
carrying  the  air  with  it,  so  that,  for  a  moment, 
air  comes  out  of  the  foot  vent,  instead  of  being 


FIG.  26. 


drawn  in,  and  the  air  which  comes  out  brings 
with  it  the  odors  of  the  drain.  If  there  is  a  win- 
dow near  the  opening  of  the  foot  vent,  these  odors 
are  very  likely  to  be  unpleasantly  perceived,  par- 
ticularly if  the  window  belongs  to  a  room  con- 
stantly occupied. 

In  order  to  make  sure  wrhether  this  is  the  origin 
of  the  trouble,  some  one  should  be  stationed  at 
the  foot-vent  opening,  while  another  discharges 


144  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

a  bath-tub  or  wash-tray  in  the  house ;  the  coinci- 
dence of  an  unpleasant  smell  at  the  foot  vent  with 
the  discharge  of  the  fixture  in  the  house  will  be 
good  evidence  that  this  is  the  source  of  the  an- 
noyance. The  best  remedy  for  it  would  be  to 
take  out  both  the  foot  vent  and  the  trap ;  but,  if 
the  official  regulations  do  not  permit  this,  the 
foot  vent  should  be  extended  to  some  place  where 
its  occasional  exhalations  cannot  reach  a  window. 
Occasionally,  the  other  end  of  the  soil-pipe  is 
at  fault.  The  strong  current  which,  with  modern 
plumbing,  usually  ascends  the  pipe,  diffuses  itself 
to  a  considerable  distance  around  its  upper  open- 
ing ;  and,  in  houses  with  steep  roofs,  and  attic 
rooms,  it  often  happens  that  the  top  of  a  soil-pipe 
is  left  open  near  a  window.  An  inspection  of 
the  upper  portion  of  the  pipe  will  show  what  the 
conditions  are  in  this  respect ;  and,  if  necessary, 
the  pipe  may  be  extended  to  a  greater  height,  sup- 
porting it  by  carrying  it  up  beside  a  chimney  or 
dormer.  In  some  houses,  particularly  in  cities, 
the  rain-water  conductors  are  connected  with  the 
soil-pipe,  without  a  trap  between,  and,  in  such 
cases,  bring  a  plentiful  supply  of  drain-air  to  the 
dormer  windows  which  happen  to  overlook  the 
gutter.  Where  this  is  the  case,  the  simplest 
remedy  is  to  put  a  trap  between  the  conductor 
and  the  soil-pipe,  and  this  is  generally  required 
by  law,  where  there  are  windows  in  the  roof 
above  the  gutter.  In  houses  with  flat  roofs,  where 
there  are  no  windows  above  the  gutter,  the  trap 


TROUBLES   WITH    PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     145 

between  the  conductor  and  the  soil-pipe  is  unnec- 
essary, and  is  in  some  respects  objectionable,  as 
it  is  apt  to  fill  with  ice  in  winter. 

Sometimes  the  smell  of  the  drains  will  be  car- 
ried into  a  house  through  a  fireplace  ;  and,  where 
the  smell  is  particularly  noticeable  near  a  fire- 
place in  warm  weather,  this  may  be  suspected. 
In  summer,  when  the  house  is  cool,  and  the  out- 
side air  warm,  it  is  very  common,  particularly  in 
city  houses,  for  the  current  in  the  flues  to  be  re- 
versed, the  cool  brickwork  chilling  the  air  in  the 
flues  until  it  is  heavier  than  a  column  of  outside 
air  of  the  same  section  and  height.  When  this 
occurs,  the  air  in  the  flues  will  descend,  bringing 
with  it  into  the  rooms  the  "  sooty  smell "  character- 
istic of  rooms  in  old  houses  which  are  kept  shut 
up  in  hot  weather ;  and  the  same  current  which 
conveys  the  fragrance  of  the  soot  in  an  old  chim- 
ney brings  also  down  the  flue  a  portion  of  what- 
ever vapors  may  be  hanging  at  the  time  around 
the  top  of  the  chimney.  Among  these  are  often 
exhalations  from  the  open  top  of  a  soil-pipe  which 
is  carried  up  beside  the  chimney ;  and  the  quan- 
tity of  such  exhalations  is  not  unfrequently  suffi- 
cient to  make  them  very  distinctly  appreciable  to 
people  sitting  or  standing  near  a  fireplace  in  com- 
munication with  the  flue.  As  the  testing  of  the 
waste-pipes  throws  no  light  on  a  condition  of  this 
kind,  its  existence  may  be  suspected  in  cases  where 
mysterious  smells  have  baffled  the  intelligence  of 
the  local  plumber. 


146  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

Testing  with  When  careful  examination  of  the  pipes  and 
peppermmt.  fixtures  shows  no  visible  leaks,  or  other  means  of 
communication  between  the  air  of  the  house  and 
that  of  the  drains,  the  pipes,  if  the  smell  which 
it  is  desired  to  investigate  still  continues,  and 
cannot  be  traced  to  a  dead  rat,  or  mouse,  or  to 
bad  eggs  or  scraps  of  meat  in  the  ash-barrel,  or 
to  remains  of  glue-size  left  lay  painters  or  paper- 
,  ers,  should  be  tested.  This  is  thoroughly  and 
scientifically  done  by  engineers  who  make  it  a 
part  of  their  professional  work,  or  by  the  best 
plumbers ;  but  the  householder  who  has  not  a 
first-rate  plumber  within  reach  can  easily  make 
a  satisfactory  test  for  himself. 

For  this  purpose  two  ounces  of  oil  of  pepper- 
mint should  be  procured.  Druggists  very  gen- 
erally keep  oil  of  peppermint  in  two-ounce  glass 
tubes,  hermetically  sealed,  for  plumbers'  use ; 
but,  if  those  are  not  available,  a  well-corked 
bottle  will  answer.  Armed  with  the  oil  of  pep- 
permint and  a  pail  or  pitcher  of  hot  water,  some 
one  should  be  sent,  if  possible,  to  the  roof,  to 
pour  the  peppermint  into  the  top  of  the  soil- 
pipe  ;  but,  if  it  is  impracticable  to  reach  the  top 
of  the  pipe,  the  oil  may  be  poured  into  the  high- 
est sink,  basin,  or  other  fixture  in  the  house, 
keeping  the  door  of  the  room  in  which  the  fix- 
ture is  placed  tightly  closed.  The  tube  of  oil  is 
to  be  broken,  or  the  bottle  uncorked,  and  the 
contents  poured  into  the  soil-pipe,  or  the  waste- 
pipe  of  the  fixture,  followed  immediately  by  the 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     147 

hot  water.  The  warm  water  washes  the  oil 
down  the  pipe,  at  the  same  time  that  its  heat 
volatilizes  it,  diffusing  the  vapor  through  the 
whole  system  of  waste  and  air  pipes ;  and,  as 
soon  as  it  is  poured  down,  the  opening  through 
which  it  was  poured  should  be  tightly  closed,  by 
stuffing  in  paper  or  otherwise,  to  increase  the 
thoroughness  of  the  diffusion  of  the  vapor,  and 
prevent  its  escape.  The  person  deputed  to  pour 
the  peppermint  into  the  pipes  should  not  come 
into  the  house,  or  leave  the  room  in  which  he 
operates,  until  the  test  is  over,  as  he  would  bring 
so  much  of  the  perfume  writh  him  as  to  vitiate 
the  test.  Supposing  care  to  have  been  taken  in 
regard  to  this  point,  any  smell  of  peppermint  in 
the  house  will  indicate  a  defect  in  the  waste  or 
air  pipes  near  the  place  where  the  odor  is  per- 
ceived ;  and  closer  inspection  will  generally  de- 
termine the  exact  location  and  character  of  the 
defect,  which  may,  in  many  cases,  be  remedied 
by  recaulking,  or  by  the  application  of  putty. 
Where  a  pipe  is  broken,  or  rusted  through,  the 
smell  of  peppermint  will  be  so  strong  as  to  call 
immediate  attention  to  the  trouble,  and,  in  such 
cases,  the  pipe  must  be  renewed. 

It  is  desirable,  after  such  leaks  as  may  be  dis-  Repetition 
closed  by  the  peppermint  have  been  stopped,  to 
repeat  the  test ;  and  the  householder  may  be 
sure  that  no  sewer-gas  can  escape  into  his  rooms 
from  pipes  which  are  tight  enough  to  keep  in  the 
vapor  of  peppermint  applied  in  this  way. 


148  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  large  houses,  or 
in  those  built  some  years  ago,  when  plumbers 
had  a  mania  for  extending  air-pipes  through  the 
roof,  there  is  more  than  one  pipe  projecting 
above  the  roof,  all  such  pipes,  except  the  one 
into  which  the  peppermint  is  to  be  poured, 
should  be  temporarily  closed  with  wads  of  paper, 
to  prevent  the  current  which  generally  exists  in 
house-pipes  from  drawing  off  the  vapor  before  it 
has  diffused  itself  through  the  entire  system.  As 
all  the  waste-pipes  in  the  house,  however  numer- 
ous, join  inside  of  the  main  trap,  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  pour  the  peppermint  into  one  pipe  to 
fill  the  whole  system  with  the  vapor ;  but  the 
washing  down  of  the  oil  with  hot  water  is  an 
essential  feature  of  the  test,  as  without  it  there 
is  no  certainty  that  enough  vapor  will  be  gener- 
ated to  fill  all  the  pipes. 

Soil-pipes  In  some  houses,  built  when  plumbers  were  less 

enlightened  than  they  are  now,  or  when  inspec- 
tion was  less  rigid,  soil-pipes,  instead  of  being  car- 
ried up  through  the  roof,  may  be  found  entered 
into  a  chimney-flue,  often  the  range-flue,  proba- 
bly with  some  vague  notion  of  ventilating  the 
fixtures,  just  as,  in  modern  plumbing,  the  local 
vent  of  a  water-closet  is  connected  with  a  heated 
flue.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  mod- 
ern local  vent  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  drains, 
simply  conducting  the  air  of  the  room  into  the 
flue  through  the  bowl  of  the  water-closet ;  while 
the  soil-pipe,  on  the  other  hand,  being  separated 


TROUBLES  WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     149 

from  the  water-closet  basin  by  the  sealing-water 
of  the  trap,  can  do  absolutely  nothing  to  ventilate 
the  closet,  and  serves  only  to  contain,  and  guide 
to  a  safe  outlet,  the  air  of  the  drain  ;  so  that  the 
only  result  of  connecting  a  soil-pipe,  or  a  back- 
vent  pipe  from  a  trap,  with  a  chimney-flue  is  to 
saturate  the  porous  brickwork  of  the  chimney 
with  foul  odors,  which  soon  diffuse  themselves 
into  the  rooms  through  which  the  chimney 
passes.  An  objectionable  arrangement  of  this 
kind  often  exists  undiscovered  in  old  houses, 
and  may  be  suspected  where  a  foul  odor  hangs 
persistently  about  rooms  which  have  a  chimney 
passing  through  them,  but  no  pipes.  The  pep- 
permint test  may  be  used  to  confirm  these  suspi- 
cions, but,  as  the  peppermint  vapor  penetrates 
the  brickwork  very  slowly,  repeated  trials  may 
be  necessary. 

Where  the  pipes  are  proved  tight,  the  pepper-  Leaks 
mint  may  show  leaks  around  the  fixtures.  Most  fixtures, 
water-closets,  for  instance,  which  have  the  trap 
formed  in  the  porcelain,  including  the  siphon  and 
washout  patterns,  as  well  as  the  all-porcelain 
short  hopper  and  wash-down  closets,  make  the 
connection  between  the  outlet  of  the  porcelain 
closet  and  the  lead  branch  of  the  soil-pipe  by 
means  of  a  projection  of  the  porcelain,  which 
fits  loosely  into  the  lead  pipe,  the  joint  being 
filled  with  putty.  In  practice,  the  end  of  the 
lead  pipe  is  brought  up  through  a  hole  in  the 
floor  and  « flanged  out "  around  the  opening ; 


150  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

and,  after  a  mass  of  putty  has  been  spread  on  the 
floor  about  the  opening,  the  closet  is  set  in  place, 
the  projection  entering  the  mouth  of  the  lead 
pipe,  while  the  spreading  porcelain  foot  covers 
the  putty  on  the  floor.  The  bolts  which  hold 
the  closet  to  the  floor  are  then  put  in  and  tight- 
ened until  the  putty  is  squeezed  out  to  the  edge 
of  the  foot,  when  it  is  trimmed  off,  and  the  set- 
ting is  complete.  In  most  cases  this  makes,  at 
first,  an  air-tight  setting ;  but  if  the  closet  is  re- 
peatedly taken  up,  to  prevent  it  from  freezing  in 
winter,  or  if  the  floor  should  shrink  materially, 
or  the  closet  become  displaced,  a  crevice  may  be 
opened  in  the  putty,  through  which  sewer-gas 
will  pass  directly  from  the  soil-pipe.  A  leak  of 
this  kind  is  immediately  exposed  by  the  pepper- 
mint test,  and  is  remedied  without  difficulty  by 
unscrewing  the  bolts,  and  the  coupling  which 
connects  the  closet  with  the  flush-pipe  from  the 
cistern,  detaching  the  local  vent,  if  there  is  any, 
by  the  slip-joint  which  is  always  used  in  connect- 
ing it,  and  taking  up  the  closet,  putting  down 
fresh  putty,  or  grafting- wax,  which  is  preferable 
to  putty  for  the  purpose,  and  resetting  and  re- 
connecting the  closet. 

As  a  leak  of  this  kind  may  exist  for  a  long 
time  before  it  is  detected,  to  the  injury  of  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  house,  closets 
with  metal  traps,  which  can  be  soldered  per- 
manently to  the  branch  of  the  soil-pipe,  are  pre- 
ferred by  many  architects.  In  this  case  the 


TKOUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     151 

detachable  joint,  by  which  the  closet  is  removed 
and  reset,  when  necessary,  is  between  the  por- 
celain bowl  of  the  closet  and  the  trap.  If  this 
joint  should  not  be  perfectly  tight,  which  is 
frequently  the  case,  water  will  leak  through  it 
from  the  closet-bowl  on  the  floor ;  but,  as  the 
leak  is  on  the  house  side  of  the  water-seal  of  the 
trap,  no  sewer-gas  can  come  through  it  so  long 
as  the  water  remains  in  the  trap,  and  no  harm 
will  be  done  beyond  the  wetting  of  the  floor. 
With  certain  forms  of  metallic-connection  closets, 
however,  a  leak  between  the  bowl  and  the  metal 
trap  may  drain  the  water  out  of  the  trap,  de- 
stroying the  seal,  and  opening  a  passage  for 
floods  of  sewer-gas ;  so  that  each  form  has  cer- 
tain advantages  as  well  as  disadvantages.  Some 
expensive  all-porcelain  closets,  instead  of  requir- 
ing putty  for  making  the  joint  with  the  branch 
of  the  soil-pipe,  have  a  provision  for  packing  the 
connection  with  copper  or  lead  gaskets ;  but 
there  is  room  for  further  improvement  in  this 
direction. 

After  the  persevering  householder  has  investi-  Overflows, 
gated  the  cesspool,  the  foot  vent,  and  the  chim- 
neys, applied  the  peppermint  test,  and  repaired 
the  leaks  in  pipes  and  fixtures,  he  may  still  be 
troubled  by  unpleasant  smells,  the,  cause  of 
which  his  search  has  failed  to  disclose.  These 
will  generally  be  found  on  closer  inspection  to 
proceed  from  the  overflow  openings  of  wash- 
basins, baths,  or  pantry  sinks.  If  these  fixtures 


152  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

have  stand-pipe  overflows,  the  trouble  may  easily 
be  remedied  by  taking  out  the  stand-pipes  and 
cleaning  them,  with  the  recesses  or  tubes  con- 
taining them,  with  a  sponge  or  rag  tied  to  a 
stick  or  stout  wire,  using  ammonia  or  soda,  if 
necessary,  to  dissolve  and  remove  grease.  If  the 
fixtures,  on  the  contrary,  are  of  the  old-fashioned 
type,  the  overflow  may  be  inaccessible  to  a 
sponge,  and  it  is  in  overflows  of  this  sort  that 
smells  are  most  likely  to  occur,  as  the  overflow- 
pipe  in  such  cases  is  comparatively  long,  and, 
when  lined  with  a  mixture  of  old  soap,  hair, 
epithelium  cells,  and  similar  materials,  is  capable 
of  giving  off  an  aroma  of  astonishing  power. 
Bath-tubs,  which  have  a  long  and  large  overflow, 
seldom  washed,  except  by  the  soapy  scum  of  a 
hot  bath,  often  become  surprisingly  offensive, 
particularly  in  hot  weather ;  and  wash-basins, 
especially  in  nursery  bath-rooms,  where  milk 
occasionally  gets  into  the  overflow,  may  be 
hardly  less  so. 

When  a  smell  of  this  sort  is  traced  to  the 
grated  opening  of  an  inaccessible  overflow  which 
cannot  be  sponged  out,  a  slow,  but  tolerably 
efficient  cleansing  can  be  given  it  by  filling  the 
fixture  to  overflowing  with  clean  water,  and 
allowing  washing  soda  or  ammonia  to  mix  with 
the  current  as  it  passes  through  the  strainer.  In 
the  case  of  nursery  wash-basins  or  sinks  in  old 
houses,  where  the  overflows  are  of  lead,  even  this 
treatment  may  not  be  sufficient,  as  decomposing 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  — REMEDY     153 

milk  seems  to  saturate  a  lead  pipe  beyond  recov- 
ery ;  and,  under  such  circumstances,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  cut  out  the  lead  overflow-pipe  and 
substitute  a  fresh  one,  or  put  in  a  modern  fixture 
with  a  stand-pipe,  or  an  overflow  formed  in  the 
porcelain. 

Defects  in  supply-pipes  commonly  show  them-  Defects  in 
selves  by  leaks,  which  may  assume  all  proportions, 
The  worst  leaks  are,  perhaps,  those  due  to  the 
splitting  of  unannealed  brass  pipes,  which  may 
deluge  a  house  in  a  few  moments ;  but  even  un- 
annealed brass  pipe  does  not  always  split,  while 
respectable  plumbers  generally  use  annealed  pipe, 
so  that  accidents  from  this  cause  are  rare.  Iron 
pipes  give  much  more  annoyance  by  filling  up 
with  rust.  With  some  waters  a  badly  coated  or 
defective  iron  pipe,  even  if  enamelled  or  galvan- 
ized, may  choke  completely  with  rust  in  a  month, 
while  the  best  galvanized  pipes  sometimes  serve 
perfectly  for  many  years ;  but  there  is  always  a 
chance  of  trouble  with  iron  supply-pipes  of  any 
kind.  Where  they  are  exposed  to  freezing,  also, 
iron  pipes  should  be  avoided,  as  the  freezing  of 
such  a  pipe  generally  splits  it  for  nearly  its  whole 
length,  causing  a  destructive  leak  when  it  thaws 
again,  while  a  lead  pipe,  in  freezing,  bulges 
locally,  opening  at  most  a  small  hole,  which  does 
not  give  passage  to  much  water  on  thawing,  and 
can  be  closed  by  a  drop  of  solder. 

Both  iron  and  brass   pipes   must  be   put  up 
with  care  to  allow  for  expansion,  by  arranging 


154  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

long,  right-angled  turns  in  them,  which  can 
spring  a  little  if  necessary.  Without  this  pre- 
caution the  contraction  of  a  long,  straight  line  of 
such  pipe  strains  the  joints,  and  soon  causes  leak- 
age. Lead  pipes  are  not  liable  to  leaks  from  this 
cause,  as  the  metal  is  soft  enough  to  yield  under 
the  strain ;  but,  if  improperly  put  up,  with  iron 
hooks  instead  of  wide  and  smooth  brass  bands, 
or  hard-metal  "  tacks  "  soldered  to  the  pipes,  the 
alternate  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  pipe 
as  it  passes  over  the  hooks  causes  these  to  cut 
into  the  soft  lead,  so  that  in  course  of  years  they 
may  be  cut  so  nearly  through  as  to  be  unable  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  them,  and  a 
bad  leak  is  the  result. 

Water-  The  softness  of  lead  exposes  pipes  made  of  it 

to  another  danger,  from  the  so-called  "  water- 
hammer."  It  is  a  familiar  property  of  water 
that,  being  practically  incompressible,  it  trans- 
mits through  its  whole  substance  with  undimin- 
ished  force  a  blow  struck  anywhere  upon  it. 
Where  the  water-supply  of  a  house  is  under  a 
high  pressure,  the  sudden  closing  of  a  faucet  to 
shut  off  a  flowing  stream  operates  as  a  blow  upon 
the  water,  the  force  of  which  is  transmitted 
through  the  entire  system  of  cold-water  pipes, 
causing  the  concussion  so  familiar  to  housekeepers. 
As  the  concussion  acts  through  all  portions  of 
the  system,  it  produces  most  effect  at  the  weak- 
est part ;  and,  where  it  has  not  been  properly 
guarded  against,  some  pipe,  often  remote  from 


TROUBLES   WITH    PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     155 

the  faucet  to  which  the  trouble  is  due,  will  begin 
to  swell  from  the  internal  pressure.  As  soon  as 
it  begins  to  yield,  the  force  of  the  water-hammer, 
acting  on  a  larger  surface,  increases  its  effect,  and 
the  bulge  enlarges  until  the  pipe  bursts.  This  is 
a  less  common  accident  now  than  it  was  in  former 
times,  as  the  compression-faucets  at  present  gen- 
erally used  shut  off  the  water  much  more  gradu- 
ally than  the  old-fashioned  ground-cocks ;  but  it 
still  sometimes  occurs,  particular!}7  where  self- 
closing  cocks  are  used,  and  the  way  to  avoid  it, 
or  to  prevent  its  repetition,  is  to  arrange  "  air-  Air- 
chambers,"  or  extensions  of  the  supply-pipes, 
generally  over  or  near  the  faucets  in  the  lower 
stories  of  the  house,  where  the  pressure  is  great- 
est. These  air-chambers  are  simply  extra  lengths 
of  pipe,  closed  at  the  end,  and  usually  turned 
upward.  They  are  full  of  imprisoned  air,  which 
cannot  escape  at  the  bottom  against  the  pressure 
of  the  water,  or  at  the  top,  this  being  closed,  and 
therefore  remains,  like  an  elastic  cushion,  ready  to 
receive  and  absorb  the  shocks  transmitted  to  it 
through  the  water.  To  be  of  much  use,  such  air- 
chambers  should  be  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet 
long ;  but,  if  of  proper  size,  they  act  very  effi- 
ciently to  reduce  water-hammer,  so  long  as  any  air 
remains  in  them.  Under  heavy  pressures,  how- 
ever, the  air  in  them  is  gradually  dissolved  in 
the  water  until  they  are  completely  filled  with 
water,  and  their  action  as  air-cushions  ceases. 
The  water-hammer  then  reappears ;  but,  in  order 


156 


THE    CARE    OF   A   HOUSE 


Faucets. 


Ground- 
cocks. 


Compres- 
sion-cocks. 


to  restore  the  efficacy  of  the  air-chambers,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  shut  the  water  off  at  the  stop- 
cock always  provided  just  inside  the  cellar  wall, 
and  let  the  house-pipes  drain  out  through  the 
waste- tube  of  the  stop-cock.  On  opening  the 
stop-cock  again  so  as  to  let  the  water  into 
the  house-pipes,  the  air-chambers  will  be  found 
filled  with  air,  ready  for  renewed  usefulness. 

Where  the  supply-pipes  are  intact,  the  faucets 
may  drip,  or  leak  more  copiously,  wasting  water 
in  an  annoying  way.  The  old-fashioned  "  ground- 
cocks,"  still  extensively  used,  contain  a  tapering 

brass  plug,  with  a  hole 
through  it  (Fig.  27)  which 
can  be  turned  to  coincide 
with  the  bore  of  the 
faucet,  or  at  any  angle 
with  it,  either  by  a  han- 
dle attached  to  the  top  of 
the  plug,  or,  in  the  case  of 
"  swing  basin-cocks,"  by 
swinging  the  faucet  itself, 
the  plug  remaining  station- 
ary. In  either  case,  parti- 
cles of  sand  in  the  water 
soon  cut  grooves  around  the  plug  and  its  seating, 
through  which  water  finds  its  way,  causing  a 
dripping  which  is  practically  incurable. 

As  the  leakage  of  a  ground-cock  can  be  reme- 
died only  by  putting  in  a  new  faucet,  most  mod- 
ern houses  are  fitted  with  "  compression-cocks," 


FIG.  27. 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     157 

which  are  made  on  a  different  principle  (Fig.  28), 
the  flow  of  water  through  them  being  checked 
by  pressing   a   spindle, 
armed  with  a  leather  or 
rubber  washer,  upon  the 
end  of  a  tube,  through 
which  the  water  passes 
on  its  way  to  the  out- 
let of  the  faucet.     The 
pressure    is    usually 

applied     by     screwing 
T  ,!  •    n      i  FIG.  28. 

down    the    spindle,   by 

means  of  a  handle  at  the  top ;  but  a  variety  is 
often  used  in  which  a  lever  takes  the  place  of 
the  screw.  The  washer  is  attached  to  the  end 
of  the  spindle  by  a  short,  brass  screw,  passing 
through  a  hole  in  the  washer,  and  it  is  the  work 
of  a  few  moments  only  to  take  off  a  washer  and 
replace  it  by  a  new  one.  This  is  an  operation 
frequently  necessary,  as  the  washers  wear  rap- 
idly, especially  where  exposed  to  hot  water. 
The  first  step  in  the  process  is  to  shut  off  the  Putting  on 
water  temporarily  from  the  faucet  to  be  operated 
upon.  This  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  as,  in 
case  of  emergency,  a  worn  washer  may  be  re- 
placed without  shutting  off  the  water;  but,  as 
the  water  spouts  in  streams  through  the  top  of 
the  faucet  during  the  operation,  it  is  more  com- 
fortable for  the  operator  to  have  it  shut  off. 

Where  the  patient  is  a  hot-water  faucet,  as  is 
most  commonly  the  case,  the  easiest  way  to  shut 


158  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

Shutting  off  off  the  water,  where  the  hot-water  system  is 
water.  supplied  from  a  tank  in  the  attic,  is  generally  to 
close  the  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
through  which  the  water  descends  to  the  boiler. 
Usually,  this  is  controlled  by  a  "  cistern-valve," 
which  is  simply  a  heavy  weight,  with  a  leather 
washer  on  the  bottom,  and  a  guide  to  direct  its 
movement,  which  can  be  dropped  upon  the  end 
of  the  descending  pipe.  In  most  cases  the  cis- 
tern-valve has  a  copper  wire  attached  to  it,  with 
two  loops  at  the  end,  which  can  be  hooked  over 
a  nail,  or  screw,  somewhere  at  the  top  of  the 
tank,  to  keep  the  wire  from  falling  into  the  tank. 
When  the  hot-water  system  is  in  operation,  the 
wire  is  hung  by  the  lower  loop,  which  holds  the 
cistern-valve  up,  away  from  the  mouth  of  the  pipe ; 
and,  to  close  the  latter,  the  wire  is  simply  un- 
hooked, the  valve  dropped,  and  the  wire  again 
hung  by  the  upper  loop,  to  prevent  it  from  being 
lost  in  the  water. 

Occasionally,  where  the  tank  is  placed  above 
the  ceiling,  or  overhead  in  a  bath-room,  the  valve 
in  the  cistern  is  suspended  from  a  lever,  from 
the  other  end  of  which  a  wire  is  carried  down 
to  some  accessible  point  on  the  wall  of  the  room, 
and  attached  to  a  hook,  generally  sliding  on  a 
brass  plate,  with  a  catch  at  the  bottom.  When 
the  hook  is  drawn  down  until  it  catches,  the 
valve  is  opened ;  and,  to  shut  the  water  off,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  disengage  it  and  leave  it  free. 
Still  more  rarely,  the  tank  is  either  raised  above 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     159 

the  floor,  or  supported  near  or  above  the  ceiling, 
with  either  an  ordinary  stop-cock  or  a  steam- 
valve  on  the  descending  pipe  under  the  tank, 
which  can  be  opened  or  closed  in  the  same  manner. 

However  the  pipe  descending  from  the  tank 
may  be  closed,  the  water  in  the  hot-water  system 
will  be  held  temporarily  suspended,  by  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  until  it  is  opened  again.  If  there 
is  an  expansion-pipe  to  the  system,  the  suspension 
will  not  be  complete  unless  this  pipe,  which  is 
usually  bent  down  over  the  overflow  of  the  tank, 
is  plugged  with  a  cork,  or  a  bit  of  paper;  but 
the  operation  of  putting  in  a  new  washer  is  not 
interfered  with  by  a  little  leakage  of  water. 

When  a  cold-water  faucet  needs  a  new  washer 
it  is  necessary  to  shut  off  the  cold-water  supply, 
either  just  inside  the  cellar  wall,  where  a  main 
stop-cock  is  always  provided,  or,  if  a  special  shut- 
off  is  arranged  for  the  fixture  requiring  attention, 
this  may  be  closed.  In  either  case,  there  will 
probably  be  a  temporary  spouting  of  water  from 
the  waste-tube  of  the  shut-off  cock,  which  may 
need  to  be  attended  to. 

When  the  water  has  been  shut  off,  the  first  Putting  on 
step  in  the  operation  of  replacing  the  washer  is,  Dashers, 
with    most    compression-cocks,    to    unscrew  •  the 
octagonal  cap  through  which  the  stem  of  the  spin- 
dle passes,  and  which  is  furnished  with  packing, 
to  prevent  leakage  around  the  stem.     A  wrench 
is  likely  to  be  needed  for  unscrewing  this  cap  for 
the  first  time,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  screw  it 


160  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

down  tight  in  replacing  it.  After  the  cap  has  been 
loosened,  the  spindle  is  easily  unscrewed  and  taken 
out,  bringing  the  cap  with  it.  The  washer,  or  its 
remains,  will  then  be  seen,  held  to  the  bottom  of 
the  spindle  by  a  round-headed  brass  screw.  Sup- 
posing the  careful  householder  to  have  provided  him- 
self with  a  few  half-inch  washers  for  basin-cocks, 
and  five-eighths  inch  for  sink,  bath,  and  wash-tray 
cocks,  which  can  be  had  of  any  dealer  in  plumb- 
ing materials,  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  done 
but  to  take  out  the  round-headed  screw,  remove 
the  old  washer,  put  on  the  new  one,  replace  every- 
thing as  before,  and  turn  on  the  water  again. 

The  whole  operation,  including  turning  the 
water  off  and  on,  can  easily  be  performed  in  five 
minutes,  in  most  houses ;  and,  as  a  plumber  and 
his  helper  often  consume  half  a  day  in  coming 
from  the  shop  to  see  what  is  wanted,  going  back 
to  the  shop  for  the  necessary  tools,  returning  to 
the  house,  making  an  elaborate  search  for  the 
shut-offs,  applying  the  new  washer,  refreshing 
themselves  with  a  pipe  after  their  exertions,  and 
getting  back  to  the  shop  again,  there  is  a  material 
economy  in  employing  home  talent  in  an  operation 
which  is  required  several  times  in  the  course  of  a 
year,  even  in  a  small  house.  Plumbers  generally 
use  washers  of  thick  leather  for  cold-water  faucets, 
and  special  washers  of  various  materials,  includ- 
ing pasteboard  and  hard  rubber,  for  hot  water, 
which  soon  softens  and  disintegrates  leather  ;  but. 
if  the  householder  can  apply  washers  for  himself, 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     161 

leather  will  answer  for  all  purposes,  and  is  less 
likely  to  crush  and  injure  the  thin,  brass  edge  on 
which  the  washer  presses  than  the  harder  mate- 
rials. In  any  case,  this  thin  edge,  under  the  action 
of  hot  water,  slowly  crystallizes  and  crumbles 
away,  until  it  becomes  so  uneven  that  even  a  leather 
washer  will  not  keep  the  water  back.  When 
this  happens,  the  faucet  is  practically  worthless, 
and  a  new  one  should  be  put  in  its  place. 

Ball-cocks  are  only  used  to  supply  tanks  or  Bali-cocks, 
cisterns  of  some  kind  ;  the  ball,  or  float,  rising  as 
the  cistern  fills,  so  as  to  shut  off  the  water  when 
the  cistern  is  full.  As  not  only  the  main  tank, 
but  all  the  water-closet  cisterns,  and  often  the 
furnace-supply,  are  provided  with  ball-cocks, 
the  number  of  them  in  a  house  may  be  con- 
siderable, and  they  are  quite  likely  to  give 
trouble.  In  substance,  they  are  usually  simple 
compression-cocks,  turned  over  on  their  side ;  the 
float,  with  the  brass  rod  which  connects  it  with 
the  spindle  of  the  cock,  taking  the  place  of  a 
handle.  As  the  float  is  almost  constantly  in 
motion  upward  or  downward,  as  the  cistern  is 
discharged  and  refilled,  the  washer  wears  out 
slowly,  allowing  the  ball-cock  to  leak ;  and  leaks 
also  occur  from  other  causes.  As  all  tanks  and 
cisterns  supplied  through  ball-cocks  are  provided 
with  some  sort  of  overflow,  the  water  which 
leaks  through  the  ball-cock  runs  off,  almost  un- 
noticed, through  the  overflow,  which  generally 
discharges,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  into  a 


162  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

water-closet  basin,  escaping  through  the  trap, 
without  doing  any  visible  harm  ;  but,  as  a  great 
deal  of  water  may  be  wasted  in  this  way,  to  the 
unpleasant  surprise  of  householders  who  take 
water  through  a  meter,  such  leaks  should  be 
promptly  stopped. 

A  very  common  source  of  waste  of  water  in 
this  way  is  not  strictly  leakage  of  the  ball-cock, 
but  the  bending  of  the  rod  which  carries  the 


FIG.  29. 

float.  This  rod  is  often  made  of  light  tubing, 
instead  of  solid  wire,  and  is  rarely  stiff  enough 
to  resist  firmly  the  powerful  upward  pressure  of 
the  water  on  the  float;  so  that  it  by  slow  de- 
grees acquires  an  upward  curve  (Fig.  29).  It  is 
obvious  that  if  a  ball-cock  with  a  straight  rod 
is  arranged  so  as  to  shut  off  the  water  when  the 
float  reaches  a  certain  height,  the  consequence  of 
the  upward  bending  of  the  rod  will  be  that  the 
float  must  be  lifted  higher  to  produce  the  same 
effect  in  shutting  off  the  water ;  and,  as  the 
bending  increases,  the  water  ultimately  reaches 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     163 

the  level  of  the  overflow  before  it  is  shut  off. 
Inspection  of  the  ball-cock  and  cistern  will  gen- 
erally show  whether  such  curvature  of  the  rod 
has  taken  place,  and,  if  so,  it  can,  with  care,  be 
bent  back  again  to  its  proper  position,  in  which 
it  will  stay  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances. 

If  the  rod  connecting  the  float  with  the  ball- 
cock  is  found  to  be  straight,  but  the  cistern  over- 
flows, this  is  probably  due  either  to  the  wearing 
out  of  the  washer,  or  to  the  presence  of  some 
foreign  substance  between  the  washer  and  its 
seat.  The  latter  is  very  apt  to  occur  in  a  new 
house,  as  the  particles  of  lead  cut  or  rasped  from 
the  pipes  are  often  carried  along  by  the  water, 
and  are  caught  under  the  washers.  In  either 
case  the  trouble  is  easily  remedied  by  shutting 
off  the  water,  taking  off  the  rod,  which  is  usually 
held  in  place  on  the  spindle  of  the  ball-cock  by  a 
cap  screwed  over  it,  and  removing  the  spindle 
which  carries  the  washer,  cleaning  or  replacing 
this  as  may  be  necessary. 

If,  on  inspecting  the  cistern,  the  float  is  found 
submerged,  the  cock  running  a  full  stream  mean- 
while, the  ball  itself  probably  leaks,  so  that  it 
floats  no  longer,  and  the  hole,  after  draining  out 
the  water,  should  be  found  and  stopped  with  a 
drop  of  solder.  Nearly  all  floats  are  made  of 
copper,  which  is  easily  repaired  in  this  way. 

Temporarily,  in  this  case,  as  in  that  of  the 
bending  of  the  rod,  the  overflow  can  be  stopped 


164  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

by  tying  up  the  ball  to  something  overhead.  It 
is  usual  to  provide  all  ball-cocks  with  a  chain 
anchored  to  some  fixed  point,  which  will  prevent 
the  ball  from  falling  to  a  position  in  which  the 
rod  hangs  vertically  down.  If  this  precaution  is 
neglected,  it  may  happen,  when  a  cistern  or  tank 
is  emptied,  and  then  refilled,  that,  in  refilling, 
the  upward  pressure  on  the  float  will  be  exerted 
directly  in  the  axis  of  the  rod,  pushing  this  up- 
ward, but  not  turning  it  to  its  proper  position, 
so  that  the  cock  remains  open  to  its  fullest 
extent,  wasting  a  large  amount  of  water.  A 
touch  with  the  hand  will  bring  the  float  up  to 
its  place  in  such  cases,  but  it  should  be  provided 
with  some  means  of  preventing  it  from  assuming 
such  a  position  again. 

Condensa-  Housekeepers  are  often  alarmed  in  summer  by 
a  dripping  of  water  from  pipes,  due  solely  to  the 
condensation  of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere 
upon  them  when  they  are  chilled  by  the  passage 
of  cold  water  through  them.  In  kitchens  and 
cellars,  particularly  where  the  atmosphere  is 
moist,  the  course  of  the  cold-water  supply-pipes 
may  often  be  traced  by  the  water  which  drips 
from  them  on  the  floor.  A  little  observation 
will  show  the  difference  between  the  dripping 
of  condensed  water,  which  forms  in  drops  all 
over  the  surface  of  a  cold  pipe,  and  the  tiny 
stream  which  issues  from  a  cracked  pipe  or 
imperfect  joint ;  and,  if  the  condensation  is 
annoying,  it  can  easily  be  checked  by  wrap- 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     165 

ping    the    offending    pipe    with    asbestos    paper 
or  felt. 

Plumbing  fixtures  are  not  very  liable  to  Defects  in 
defects  not  connected  with  their  waste-pipes  and  fixtu 
traps,  or  their  supply-system,  but  the  defects 
which  sometimes  occur  in  them  are  not  easily 
curable.  All  manufactures  of  white  earthen- 
ware, including  kitchen  sinks,  pantry  sinks, 
laundry  wash-trays,  bath-tubs,  water-closets,  and 
wash-basins  are  liable  to  "  craze,"  the  glaze 
cracking,  so  as  to  injure  the  appearance  of  the 
fixture,  and  sometimes  coming  off  in  chips,  or 
flakes,  leaving  the  body  of  the  earthenware  ex- 
posed. As  this  is  somewhat  porous,  it  soon 
becomes  discolored  and  looks  badly,  although 
the  use  of  the  fixture  is  not  seriously  interfered 
with.  "  Crazing  "  is  much  less  common  now 
than  it  was  before  the  American  potteries 
brought  the  art  of  manufacturing  plumbers' 
earthenware  to  its  present  perfection,  but  it  still 
occurs  to  some  extent.  For  wash-basins  and 
water-closets  it  can  be  entirely  avoided  by  using, 
instead  of  ordinary  glazed  earthenware,  the 
"  vitreous  china,"  also  an  American  invention,  vitreous 
which  differs  from  glazed  earthenware  just  as  c 
French  china  or  porcelain  differs  from  ordinary 
stoneware,  being  far  stronger  and  handsomer, 
while  its  glossy  surface  is  unaffected  by  anything 
which  does  not  destroy  the  article  itself.  Unfor- 
tunately, sinks,  bath-tubs,  and  wash-trays  are  too 
large  to  be  made  of  vitreous  china  ;  and,  although 


166  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

they  sometimes  profess  to  be  of  "  porcelain,"  or 
of  "  vitrified "  ware,  they  are,  unless  in  very 
exceptional  cases,  simply  of  earthenware. 

Another  reason  for  preferring  vitreous  china 
to  ordinary  earthenware,  particularly  for  water- 
closets,  is  that  the  latter,  being  of  somewhat 
complicated  form,  are  always  moulded  in  sev- 
eral pieces,  which  are  stuck  together,  when  the 
clay  is  soft,  and  then  hardened  by  burning,  the 
glaze  being  subsequently  applied,  and  fixed  by  a 
second  burning.  As  the  burning  is  effected  at  a 
far  lower  temperature  than  that  required  for 
making  vitreous  china,  the  different  portions  of 
the  earthenware  fixture  do  not  always  unite  per- 
fectly ;  and  there  are  few  accidents  more  annoy- 
ing than  the  sudden  separation  of  a  water-closet 
bowl  into  its  component  parts  while  in  daily  use. 

For  kitchen  sinks  a  dark-colored  ware  is  some- 
times used,  made  of  a  clay  similar  to  that  em- 
ployed for  manufacturing  drain-pipes,  and  glazed 
in  the  same  way,  by  throwing  salt  into  the 
fire  in  which  it  is  burned.  These  sinks  are 
cheap,  and  are  said  to  be  strong  and  durable,  but 
they  are  not  attractive  in  appearance.  A  yellow 
ware,  like  that  used  for  the  pie  plates  and 
pudding  bowls  which  have  ornamented  Ameri- 
can pantries  for  a  century,  is  also  occasionally 
used  for  sinks,  but  with  no  conspicuous  advan- 
tage. 

All  fixtures  of  "porcelain,"  glazed  earthen- 
ware, and  vitreous  china  are  divided  by  the 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     167 

manufacturers,  before    they    are    sent    out,  into  "A,^"Bf" 
three  grades,   known    as    "A,"    "  B,"    and  « C,"  qualities, 
those  of  the  "  A  "  grade  being  supposed  to  be  as 
perfect  as  the  process  of  manufacture  will  admit ; 
those  of  the  "  B "  grade  being  slightly  warped, 
or    having    imperfections   in     the    glaze ;    while 
those  of  the  "  C "    grade  are  more  warped,    or 
have  greater  imperfections  in  the  glaze.     All  the 
grades,  however,  are  suitable  for  use,  the  differ- 
ences being  only'  in  appearance. 

The  enamelled  iron  now  so  much  used  for  bath-  Enamelled 
tubs,  and  to  a  certain  extent  for  wash-basins, 
sinks,  and  other  fixtures,  is  somewhat  liable  to 
chipping  of  the  enamel.  As  with  earthenware, 
the  manufacture  of  enamelled  iron  has  been 
brought  to  great  perfection  in  this  country,  and 
bath-tubs  with  certain  trade-names  are  guaranteed 
by  the  makers,  who  will  furnish  a  new  one  in 
place  of  any  tub  of  the  guaranteed  names  from 
which  the  enamel  begins  to  chip  within  two  years 
after  it  is  put  in.  Any  plumber  can  furnish  a  list 
of  the  guaranteed  varieties  of  tub,  which  change 
from  year  to  year ;  but  the  makers  do  not  al- 
ways remember  to  include  in  their  guarantee  the 
cost  of  the  plumber's  labor  in  taking  out  the  old 
tub,  and  putting  in  the  new  one  ;  and  nothing  is 
guaranteed  in  regard  to  tubs  whose  trade-names 
do  not  appear  on  the  list.  The  cracking  of  the 
enamel  of  any  enamelled-iron  fixture  is  followed 
by  the  rusting  of  the  iron,  and  consequent  un- 
pleasant staining ;  so  that,  although  the  risk  is 


168  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

not  very  great,  and  the  best  enamelled  work  is 
beautifully  smooth  and  clean,  fixtures  of  this  kind, 
apart  from  bath-tubs,  are  not  so  much  used  in 
dwelling-houses  as  they  perhaps  deserve  to  be. 
Soapstoue  Soapstone  and  slate  are  much  used  for  kitchen 
and  slate.  sjnks  anc[  wash-trays,  and  retain  their  favor 
among  housekeepers,  notwithstanding  the  com- 
petition of  the  whiter  and  more  beautiful  earth- 
enware and  enamelled  iron.  For  wash-trays, 
particularly,  soapstone  and  slate  have  the  great 
advantage  that  the  back  and  front  of  a  set  of 
three  or  four  trays  can  be  made  in  one  piece,  the 
trays  being  simply  divided  by  partitions.  The 
clothes  can  thus  be  drawn  over  from  one  tray  to 
another  without  the  dripping  on  the  floor  between 
them,  incident  to  the  use  of  the  separate  trays  of 
earthenware  or  enamelled  iron;  while  most 
clothes-wringers  are  fitted  for  slate  or  soapstone 
trays,  although  they  can  be  had  for  the  other 
varieties.  Both  slate  and  soapstone  are,  however, 
liable  to  defects,  some  of  which  might  be  avoided 
by  greater  care  in  the  selection  of  the  material. 
Most  modern  soapstone,  for  example,  is  acted 
upon  by  water,  which  corrodes  the  surface  into 
pits,  and  finally  destroys  it ;  while  the  edges  of 
the  stone  easily  crumble  away.  Slate  is  much 
harder  than  soapstone,  and  would  be  superior  as 
a  material,  if  it  were  not  for  its  liability  to  crack. 
As  many  varieties  of  slate  are  of  immense  strength, 
it  should  be  easy  to  select  a  material  not  subject 
to  cracking ;  but  the  manufacturers  have  not  yet 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     169 

seen  fit  to  do  so,  and,  as  a  crack  across  the  bottom 
of  a  sink,  or  a  set  of  wash-trays,  is  a  serious  matter, 
slate  is  less  popular  than  it  might  otherwise  be. 

Whether  slate  or  soapstone  is  used  for  kitchen 
sinks  or  wash-trays,  it  should  be  well  oiled  with 
linseed  oil  before  being  put  into  use.  Either  stone, 
when  dry,  will  absorb  a  considerable  quantity  of 
oil,  which  fills  the  pores,  prevents,  to  a  great  de- 
gree, the  corroding  action  of  water,  and,  by  dark- 
ening the  stone,  prevents  it  from  acquiring  the 
greasy  look  common  to  such  fixtures. 

Although  unsuitable  for  wash-trays,  on  account  iron  sinks, 
of  the  danger  of  staining  the  clothes,  iron  is,  per- 
haps, the  best,  as  well  as  the  cheapest  material 
for  kitchen  sinks.  Such  sinks  should  be  of  cast 
iron,  which  is  far  less  liable  to  rust  out  than  the 
thin  sheet  steel  sometimes  used.  Sinks  are  usu- 
ally sold  galvanized,  and  the  galvanizing  protects 
them  for  a  time,  but  the  acids  used  in  cooking 
soon  remove  the  coating,  so  that  it  is  not  of  great 
advantage;  and  the  bare  iron,  which  soon  becomes 
covered  with  a  thin  film  of  grease,  answers  very 
well,  and  can  be  freshened  at  any  time  with  a 
little  black  paint.  The  weak  point  about  iron 
sinks  is  that,  being  cheap,  the  manufacturers  have 
not  taken  the  trouble  to  make  them  with  the  roll 
rims  and  high  backs  which  add  so  much  to  the 
neatness  and  convenience  of  the  enamelled  and 
porcelain  sinks ;  so  that  it  is  necessary,  to  avoid 
spattering  the  wall  behind  them,  to  cover  it  with 
sheet  copper,  sheathing,  or  tiles. 


170  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

Wash-  Wash-basins  often  give  trouble  by  dripping  or 

overflowing,  even  if  they  are  not  broken  by 
dropping  tumblers  into  them,  which  is  a  very 
common  occurrence.  The  waste-pipe  is  usually 
connected  with  the  bottom  of  the  basin  by  a  brass 
coupling,  made  tight  with  a  leather  washer,  and 
if  this  coupling  is  not  properly  screwed  up,  or  if 
the  washer  is  defective,  the  basin  will  drip.  The 
supply-pipes,  also,  are  usually  connected  by  simi- 
lar couplings  to  the  faucets,  and  often  leak, 
through  want  of  care  in  screwing  them  up.  The 
overflow  of  a  wash-basin,  also,  is  rarely  capable 
of  carrying  off  all  the  water  that  the  two  faucets, 
or  even  one  of  them,  can  pour  into  it,  and  a 
faucet  left  open  soon  causes  the  water  to  over- 
flow over  the  edges  of  the  basin.  Where  the 
basin  is  covered  with  marble,  the  upper  edge, 
which,  as  it  comes  from  the  pottery,  is  uneven, 
is  usually  ground  flat  on  a  millstone,  and  the  joint 
between  it  and  the  marble  is  filled  with  plaster 
of  Paris ;  but  even  this  only  delays  overflowing 
until  the  water  reaches  the  top  of  the  marble. 
Care  is,  of  course,  the  only  means  of  avoiding 
this  trouble. 

The  plaster  joint  between  the  marble  and  the 
top  of  the  basin  soon  washes  out  by  the  dissolv- 
ing action  of  the  water,  leaving  an  unsightly 
open  seam,  which  is  often  increased  in  size  by  the 
weight  of  the  basin,  and  the  waste-pipes  attached 
to  it,  which  tend  to  drag  it  away  from  the  mar- 
ble. The  usual  way  of  attaching  a  wash-basin 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     171 

to  its  marble  top  is  by  means  of  three  triangular 
brass  "  basin-clamps,- '  fastened  with  little  bolts, 
fixed  in  the  under  side  of  the  marble.  These  do 
not  afford  a  very  firm  support,  at  best ;  and  as 
the  separation  of  the  basin  from  the  marble 
allows  water  to  splash  over  the  edge,  when  the 
basin  is  in  use,  to  fall  on  the  floor,  it  is  desirable 
to  keep  them  well  screwed  up,  and  to  fill  the 
joint  occasionally  with  fresh  plaster  of  Paris. 

The  marble  top  of  a  wash-basin  should  be  an  Marble 
inch  and  a  quarter  thick,  or,  at  least,  an  inch  s 
and  an  eighth.     This  admits  of  proper  "  dishing  " 
around  the  basin,  so  that  spattered  water  will 
run  into  the  latter,  instead  of  falling  on  the  floor. 
With  a  slab  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  such 
as  is  sometimes  seen,  the  dishing  is  too  shallow 
to  be  of  much  use,  and  the  slab  is  fragile. 

The  proper  material  for  wash-basin  slabs  is 
what  is  known  in  the  trade  as  "blue-veined 
Italian  marble,"  being  the  product  of  the  quarries 
of  the  Carrara  region.  This,  although  oil  or  ink 
will  stain  it  slightly,  is  nearly  non-absorbent ; 
while  the  white  or  veined  American  marbles, 
sometimes  substituted  for  it  by  designing  con- 
tractors, soon  become  dingy,  even  colored  soap 
being  often  sufficient  to  stain  them. 

Water-closets,  especially  of  the  siphon-jet  type,  water- 
are  often  defective,  cracks  occurring  in  burning  c 
which  allow  water  to  escape.     Those  made   of 
vitreous   china    are    much    less    liable   than    the 
cheaper    earthenware   ones   to   this  trouble,  and 


172  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

closets  of  the  best  class  are  alleged  to  be  tested 
before  they  are  sent  out ;  but  no  tests  beyond  a 
hasty  glance  are  applied  to  the  cheaper  ones. 
The  dealer  who  sells  the  closet  will  generally 
replace  a  leaky  one  by  a  new  one,  but  there  is  a 
plumber's  bill  to  pay  for  labor  in  making  the 
change,  which  he  does  not  usually  feel  called 
upon  to  assume. 

Besides  possible  defects  in  the  closet  itself,  the 
coupling  connecting  the  supply-pipe  to  the  flush- 
ing-rim often  leaks,  particularly  when  the  closet 
has  not  been  used  for  some  time,  and  the  leather 
washer  of  the  coupling  has  become  dry.  The 
washer  may,  when  the  closet  is  used  again,  swell 
and  become  tight ;  but,  if  not,  the  coupling  may 
be  screwed  up  a  little.  In  a  similar  way,  the 
leather  washer  by  which  the  connection  between 
a  short  hopper  and  a  lead  trap  under  it  is  made 
tight  often  dries,  so  that,  when  the  closet  is  used, 
water  escapes  upon  the  floor.  The  remedy  for 
this  trouble  is  to  tighten  the  clamps  by  which 
the  hopper  and  the  trap  are  held  together. 

The  overhead  cistern  of  a  water-closet  often 
needs  attention.  If  the  ball-cock  does  not  close 
properly,  the  water  will  overflow  constantly  into 
the  bowl  of  the  closet,  and  the  ball-cock  should 
be  treated  as  described  under  the  head  of  Supply- 
Pipes.  It  often  happens,  also,  that  a  bit  of  lead, 
or  mortar,  or  other  obstruction,  gets  under  the 
cistern-valve,  preventing  it  from  being  dropped 
into  place,  so  as  to  shut  the  water  off ;  or  it  may 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  — REMEDY     173 

be  shaken  out  of  place  by  a  sudden  jerk  of  the 
chain  or  rod,  so  that  the  water  runs  out  of  the 
bottom  of  the  cistern  into  the  bowl  of  the  closet, 
the  ball-cock  of  the  cistern,  meanwhile,  pouring 
in  a  fresh  supply.  In  this  case,  a  moment's 
inspection  of  the  cistern,  or  the  simple  pulling 
of  the  chain,  followed  by  a  slow  and  steady  re- 
lease, will  often  put  matters  right  again,  by  en- 
abling the  cistern-valve  to  descend  properly. 

A  few  observations  on  the  care  of  plumbing  The  care  of 
apparatus  may  close  what  is  necessarily  a  long  apparatus, 
chapter.  Naturally,  the  most  dreaded  enemy  of 
all  plumbing  apparatus  is  frost,  which  will  quickly 
destroy  pipes  and  fixtures.  Lead  pipes  suffer  less 
from  freezing  than  those  of  iron  or  brass,  as  they 
yield  and  bulge,  opening  only  minute  holes  or 
cracks,  instead  of  splitting.  Pipes,  both  for  hot 
and  cold  water,  extending  into  rooms  exposed  to 
the  cold,  should  have  shut-offs,  so  that  the  water 
may  be  cut  off,  and  the  pipes  drained,  in  cold 
nights ;  and*  pipes  exposed  to  cold  currents  of 
air  may  with  great  advantage  be  protected  by 
wrapping  with  hair  felt,  covered  with  stout  cot- 
ton cloth,  sewed  on,  as  the  felt  without  such  pro- 
tection is  soon  destroyed  by  moths.  It  should 
be  remembered  also  that  the  space  under  the 
floors  of  an  ordinary  house  is  cold.  Often,  in 
winter,  a  thermometer  let  down  through  a  hole 
in  the  floor  into  the  space  beneath  will  sink  to 
a  point  thirty  degrees  or  more  below  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room,  and  where  supply-pipes 


174  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

are  run  between  the  floor-beams  they  should 
always  be  protected.  Such  pipes  must  be  laid 
on  boards,  firmly  supported  between  the  beams, 
and  inclining  a  little,  so  that  the  water  will  drain 
out  of  them  to  whatever  shut-offs  may  be  pro- 
vided. If  this  is  not  done,  they  will  soon  sag 
from  expansion  so  that  they  cannot  be  drained, 
and  will  inevitably  freeze  and  burst  if  left  in 
cold  weather.  The  wrapping  of  hair  felt,  or  the 
more  expensive  magnesia  covering,  form  the  best 
protection  for  pipes  in  floors,  but  they  are  often 
buried  in  planing-mill  chips,  sawdust,  or  mineral 
wool,  any  of  which  will  check  the  circulation  of 
air  around  them,  giving  a  certain  protection. 

On  very  cold  nights,  it  is  sometimes  advan- 
tageous to  reflect  that  lead,  iron,  and  brass,  but 
particularly  lead,  are  good  conductors  of  heat, 
and  that  the  warmth  from  a  lamp,  set  at  some 
accessible  place  under  a  pipe,  may  be  conducted 
many  feet  along  the  pipe  to  some  inaccessible 
and  exposed  place,  which  will  thereby  *be  pro- 
tected. For  this  reason  careful  architects  some- 
times arrange  to  have  all  the  supply-pipes  in  a 
house  pass  at  some  point  in  their  course  through 
the  kitchen,  the  heat  from  which  is  thus  more 
or  less  disseminated  throughout  the  system. 

Another  important  circumstance  is  that  hot- 
water  pipes  are  usually  the  first  to  freeze.  Of 
course,  a  pipe  with  an  active  circulation  of  hot 
water  through  it  would  not  easily  freeze,  but 
there  is  rarely  such  a  circulation  in  a  house  hot- 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     175 

water  system,  and  the  branches  from  the  main 
system  contain  water  which  is  usually  cold ;  and 
this  water,  having  had  the  air  expelled  from  it 
by  heating  in  the  water-front  of  the  range,  has 
lost  a  powerful  protection  against  freezing.  Most 
plumbers  believe  that  if  a  pail  of  boiling  water, 
and  one  of  cold  water,  are  set  out  of  doors  on  a 
cold  day,  the  boiling  water  will  freeze  first ;  and, 
although  this  idea  is  not,  perhaps,  scientifically 
accurate,  it  expresses  what  plumbers  find  to  be 
the  relative  effect  of  cold  on  hot  and  cold  water 
pipes. 

If  the  pipes  are  found  to  be  frozen  on  a  cold  Frozen 
morning,  all  rash  measures  should  be  avoided.  plpes* 
With  lead  pipes,  a  slight  bulge  will  generally 
show  the  location  of  the  trouble,  and  examina- 
tion should  be  made  to  see  whether  the  pipe  has 
burst.  If  no  hole  or  crack  can  be  discovered, 
preparations  may  safely  be  made  for  thawing  it 
out.  This  process  ordinarily  consists  in  soaking 
cloths  in  hot  water,  and  applying  them  to  the 
affected  spot ;  but  equally  good  results  can  be 
obtained,  with  much  less  trouble,  by  setting  a 
lamp,  or  an  oil  stove,  near  or  under  any  part  of 
the  frozen  pipe,  trusting  to  conduction  to  carry 
the  heat  to  the  place  where  it  is  needed.  If  not 
even  a  bulged  place  can  be  found,  the  freezing  is 
not  likely  to  be  serious,  and  may  be  treated  by 
simply  warming  the  room  with  an  oil  stove,  or 
in  any  other  convenient  way.  The  washers  of 
compression-cocks  often  freeze  to  their  seats  on  a 


176  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

cold    morning,  and    are  readily  released  in  this 
manner. 

If  a  hole  or  crack  is  found  in  a  frozen  pipe,  the 
water  should  be  shut  off  from  that  pipe,  or,  on 
the  thawing  of  the  ice,  the  room  may  be  deluged  ; 
and  the  plumber  may  then  be  sent  for  to  mend 
the  pipe  with  a  few  drops  of  solder,  or  by  putting 
in  a  new  one,  as  the  case  may  require.  It  is  by 
no  means  a  difficult  matter  for  an  amateur,  in 
case  of  need,  to  scrape  clean  the  surface  of  a  lead 
or  brass  pipe  around  a  small  leak,  and  apply 
solder,  with  the  aid  of  a  copper  "  soldering- 
bolt,"  fitted  with  a  wooden  handle,  and  heated 
red  hot  in  the  kitchen  stove,  or  even  with  a  red- 
hot  poker ;  but  the  water  must  be  shut  off  from 
the  ailing  pipe,  and  the  ice  thawed,  or  the  steam 
produced  by  the  contact  of  the  hot  solder  with 
the  ice  or  water  will  blow  the  solder  away,  per- 
haps to  the  injury  of  the  operator.  The  solder 
will  stick  to  a  lead  pipe  without  any  preparation 
except  scraping  the  lead ;  but,  when  brass  pipes 
are  treated,  it  is  necessary,  after  scraping  the 
brass,  to  heat  the  pipe  about  the  leak,  by  rubbing 
it  with  the  hot  soldering  copper,  and  then  apply 
a  little  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  otherwise 
known  as  "  soldering-fluid,"  or  rub  over  the  place, 
while  hot,  with  a  "  soldering-stick,"  composed  of 
rosin,  wax,  and  other  ingredients,  which  can  be 
obtained  of  any  dealer  in  electricians'  supplies. 
After  this,  by  rubbing  on  some  melted  solder  with 
the  hot  copper,  it  can  generally  be  made  to  adhere. 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     177 

If,  as  occasionally  happens,  the  water  in  the 
brass  pipes  connecting  the  water-front  of  the 
range  with  the  copper  bath-boiler,  or  the  water 
in  the  bath-boiler  itself,  or  in  the  pipes  rising 
from  the  top  of  it,  should  freeze,  great  care 
should  be  taken  in  making  a  fire  in  the  range. 
Even  a  small  fire  will  make  the  water  in  the 
water-front  boil  if  there  is  no  circulation  to 
keep  down  the  temperature ;  and  the  boiling  of 
the  water,  when  the  escape  of  steam  is  prevented 
by  ice  in  the  pipes  or  boiler,  is  very  dangerous. 
It  is  alwrays  safest  to  maintain  a  fire  in  the 
range  through  very  cold  nights,  so  as  to  keep 
the  water  warm  and  in  circulation  ;  but,  if  this 
precaution  is  neglected,  and  water,  after  a  cold 
night,  will  not  flow  from  the  sediment  cock 
usually  placed  on  the  lower  pipe  connecting 
the  boiler  and  the  water-front,  no  fire  should 
be  made  in  the  range  until  the  pipes  have  been 
thawed  out,  by  a  lamp  or  otherwise,  so  that 
water  will  run  from  the  sediment  cock ;  and, 
even  then,  the  fire  should  be  small,  and  closely 
watched,  until  the  upper  part  of  the  boiler  is  hot 
to  the  hand,  showing  that  it  is  filled  with  warm 
water,  which  will  soon  make  its  way  through 
the  pipes  above. 

In    the    present    age    of   open    plumbing,    the  The  care  of 
housekeeper's  cares  are  materially  increased  by  plpes 
the  multiplicity  of  exposed  pipes,  traps,  and  other 
metal-work  which  must  be  kept  in  order.     In  old 
houses,    the    supply    and    waste    pipes    are    still 


178  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

covered  by  wooden  casings,  but  these  casings, 
enclosing  a  warm,  dark,  and  moist  space,  form 
the  favorite  shelter  of  spiders  and  water-bugs,  and 
the  modern  system  of  having  everything  exposed 
is  much  to  be  preferred.  Usually,  the  faucets 
and  supply-pipes,  with  the  traps,  waste  and  air 
pipes  above  the  floor,  in  bath-rooms,  are  nickel- 
plated,  as  are  also  the  towel-racks,  sponge-baskets, 
soap-trays,  mirror- frames,  and  other  bath-room 
adjuncts  which  look  so  pretty  in  the  dealer's 
show-room.  If  all  these  nickel-plated  objects 
are  wiped  two  or  three  times  a  week,  they  can  be 
kept  bright  for  years  ;  but,  if  neglected,  they  soon 
grow  dull,  and  ultimately  become  covered  with 
a  repulsive  greenish  gray  oxide,  which  cannot  be 
removed  without  taking  the  plating  with  it,  leav- 
ing the  copper  or  brass  exposed.  Many  devices 
are  current  for  meeting  this  difficulty.  In  very 
costly  houses  the  faucets,  pipes,  and  traps  are 
sometimes  plated  with  gold,  at  an  enormous  ex- 
pense ;  and  silver-plating  is  also  employed,  at  much 
less  expense,  but  without  great  advantage,  as  the 
silver  tarnishes  by  exposure  to  gas  and  bath-room 
vapors,  and  the  rubbing  necessary  to  keep  it  bright 
soon  wears  off  the  plating,  which  is  softer  than  a 
plating  of  nickel.  Silver-plating  is,  however,  de- 
sirable for  the  plugs  and  chains  of  laundry  wash- 
trays,  as  the  nickel  commonly  used  soon  corrodes, 
and  stains  the  clothes,  left  soaking  in  the  trays, 
with  a  green  color ;  while  silver,  even  if  tarnished, 
will  not  stain  anything  in  contact  with  it. 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING— REMEDY     179 

Next,  perhaps,  to  gold-plating,  the  most  costly, 
as  well  as  most  beautiful  treatment  for  pipes  and 
other  bath-room  metal-work  consists  in  a  coating 
of  ivory-white  celluloid  enamel,  which  is  applied 
also  to  the  seats  and  covers  of  water-closets  if 
desired.  By  painting  the  wooden  cistern  over- 
head of  the  same  color,  everything  in  the  bath- 
room may  be  white  and  shining,  giving  a  very 
pretty  effect.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  ob- 
tain somewhat  similar  results  by  coating  pipes 
and  traps  with  a  vitreous  enamel  similar  to  that 
used  for  bath-tubs,  but  they  have  not  yet  been 
very  successful. 

On  account  of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  nickel- 
plating  bright,  and  the  cost  of  satisfactory  substi- 
tutes, houses  are  occasionally  fitted  with  pipes 
and  traps  of  plain  brass,  which  must,  of  course, 
be  frequently  polished,  but  is  bright  and  attrac- 
tive when  kept  in  good  order.  A  better  material 
for  the  purpose  is  German  silver,  or  one  of  the 
white  metals  made  by  the  manufacturers  of  plumb- 
ers' brass  goods.  Although  these  white  metals 
tarnish,  they  do  so  slowly,  and  when  kept  bright 
their  .appearance  is  better  than  that  of  brass. 

Where  it  is  not  desirable  to  make  a  large  ad- 
dition to  the  ordinary  cost  of  plumbing,  a  good 
and  durable  effect  can  be  obtained  by  covering 
lead,  brass,  or  iron  pipes  with  aluminum  bronze, 
the  faucets,  and  other  parts  which  are  readily 
accessible  for  cleaning,  being  nickel-plated.  The 
silver  lustre  of  the  aluminum  bronze  is  liable 


180  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

to  little  change,  and  the  coating  is  easily  re- 
newed, while  the  combination  of  the  dead-bronze 
finish  with  the  shining  nickel-plating  is  very 
agreeable. 

Repiating.  All  plated  work  can  be  replated  when  the 
coating  is  worn  off,  or  attacked  by  acids,  which 
quickly  affect  nickel,  and  the  second  plating  is 
said  to  be  closer  and  harder,  and  therefore  more 
durable,  than  the  first.  Occasionally  a  copper 
pantry  sink  is  retinned,  but  the  new  coating  of 
tin  cannot  be  planished  like  the  old  one,  and  the 
effect  is  not  very  satisfactory.  Tinned-copper 
bath-tubs  are  too  large  for  recoating,  and  the 
common  mode  of  improving  their  appearance  is 
to  paint  them  inside  with  "  bath-tub  enamel,"  or 
some  other  white  paint  mixed  with  varnish. 
The  result  is,  however,  rarely  very  satisfactory, 
as,  unless  the  copper  is  thoroughly  cleaned  of 
grease  by  rubbing  it  with  a  rag  dipped  in  a 
strong  solution  of  soda,  the  enamel  paint  will 
come  off  in  patches. 

Earthen-  The  earthenware  of  plumbing  appliances,  if  of 

good  quality,  is  not  very  liable  to  deterioration. 
In  towns  where  the  public  water-pipes  are  of 
wrought  iron,  or  where  the  house-pipes,  if  of 
iron,  have  lost  their  coating  of  zinc  or  enamel, 
the  porcelain,  where  most  exposed  to  the  flow 
of  water,  gradually  acquires  a  brown  stain  ;  but, 
when  this  becomes  unpleasantly  conspicuous,  it 
can  generally  be  removed  by  washing  with  a 
solution  of  oxalic  acid  in  water. 


ware. 


TROUBLES   WITH    PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     181 

It  is  very  often  necessary  to  leave  plumbing  Theprotec- 
to  itself  for  long  periods,  while  the  house  in 
which  it  is  situated  is  closed,  and  special  pre- 
cautions  are  necessary  to  protect  the  fixtures, 
either  from  destruction  by  frost  in  winter,  or  from 
losing  by  evaporation,  in  summer,  the  seal  of 
water  in  the  traps  which  forms  the  only  barrier 
against  the  escape  of  sewer-air  into  the  rooms. 

When  the  house  is  to  be  left  to  itself  in 
winter,  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  the  climate 
of  any  part  of  America  north  of  Florida,  or  east 
of  the  California  ranges,  to  remove  water  en- 
tirely from  the  supply-pipes.  This  is  done  by 
shutting  the  main  stop-and-waste  cock,  always 
placed  just  inside  the  cellar  wall,  usually  in  a 
little  pit,  with  a  sand  bottom,  where  it  will  be 
safer  from  freezing,  and  where  the  water  which 
escapes  from  the  waste-tube  will  be  absorbed 
by  the  soil.  This  water,  which  often  spouts 
out  in  a  copious  stream,  when  the  shut-off  is 
closed,  comes  from  the  house-pipes,  the  stop-cock 
being  so  arranged  that,  after  communication  with 
the  street  main  is  closed,  a  passage  is  opened  to 
drain  off  the  water  standing  in  the  house-pipes, 
which  could  not  otherwise  be  removed,  and 
would  freeze  if  it  were  left  undisturbed.  After 
closing  the  main  shut-off,  and  draining  away 
such  water  as  will  flow  through  its  waste-tube, 
all  the  faucets  in  the  house  should  be  opened, 
not  forgetting  the  sill-cock  on  the  outside  of  the 
house,  so  as  to  allow  the  water  in  the  short 


182  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

lengths  of  pipe  leading  to  them  to  run  out,  as 
well  as  to  admit  air,  and  release  the  column  of 
water  which  might  otherwise  be  held  in  the 
main  vertical  pipes  by  atmospheric  pressure ; 
and  the  cistern-valves  supplying  the  water-closets 
should  be  held  open,  by  means  of  the  chain  or 
rod,  until  all  the  water  in  the  cisterns  has  run 
out  through  the  closet  basin. 

The  copper  bath-boiler,  and  the  water-front  of 
the  range,  must  next  be  emptied  together,  by 
opening  the  "  sediment  cock,"  which  will  be 
found  either  at  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  or  on 
the  lower  brass  pipe  connecting  the  boiler  with 
the  range,  remembering  first  to  set  a  pail  under- 
neath if  the  sediment  cock  discharges,  as  is 
often  the  case,  on  the  kitchen  floor.  A  glance 
should  then  be  given  at  the  tank  in  the  attic,  to 
make  sure  that  all  the  water  in  it  has  run  out 
through  the  boiler  that  it  supplies  ;  and  wash- 
trays,  wash-boilers,  pantry  sinks,  bath-tubs,  and 
basins  may  with  advantage  be  examined,  to 
make  sure  that  no  water  is  left  in  them.  If  the 
pipes  are  properly  laid,  with  no  sags  or  depres- 
sions in  them  which  cannot  be  drained,  these 
proceedings  will  effectually  clear  them  of  water. 
If  there  is  a  water-meter  in  the  house,  however, 
it  must  be  removed  by  the  proper  authorities ; 
and  if  the  house  is  to  be  left  for  several  months, 
it  is  safest  to  have  the  water  shut  off  at  the 
official  stop-cock  in  the  street,  as  there  may  be  a 
possibility  that  the  pipe,  unless  this  is  done,  will 


TROUBLES   WITH    PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     1&3 

freeze  and  burst  between  the  cellar  wall  and 
the  main  shut-off,  flooding  the  house  as  soon  as 
it  thaws  again,  and  perhaps  doing  immense 
damage. 

If  any  depressions  are  found,  or  are  known 
to  exist,  in  the  supply-pipes,  which  cannot  be 
drained,  either  through  some  faucet,  or  back 
through  the  waste-tube  of  the  main  shut-off, 
they  should  have  holes  bored  in  them  at  the  low- 
est point ;  and,  after  the  water  in  them  has  run 
out,  the  holes  may  be  closed  with  a  drop  of 
solder,  or  a  small  brass  "  pet-cock "  may  be 
screwed  in,  which  will  serve  at  any  time  for 
draining  the  depression. 

After  the  supply-pipes  are  thus  cleared  of 
water,  the  traps  remain  to  be  similarly  treated. 
Sinks,  pantry  sinks,  baths,  and  wash-trays  usu- 
ally have  round  traps,  with  a  large  brass  cover 
screwed  into  the  top,  which  can  be  unscrewed 
with  a  wrench,  applied  to  the  projection  formed 
for  the  purpose  on  top.  The  water  standing  in 
the  trap  can  then  be  dipped  out,  or  removed 
with  a  sponge,  and  the  trap-screw  replaced.  In 
some  cases,  round  traps  have  the  trap-screw  in 
the  side ;  and,  as  the  removal  or  loosening  of  a 
trap-screw  in  this  position  allows  the  water  to 
run  out  of  the  trap,  a  pail  or  tin  pan  should  be 
put  underneath,  to  catch  the  water,  before  the 
wrench  is  applied,  or  the  ceiling  below  may  be 
spoiled.  With  S  traps,  such  as  are  commonly 
used  under  wash-basins,  and  sometimes  under 


184  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

baths,  the  same  precaution  is  necessary,  and  it 
is  required  also  with  most  of  the  patent  traps, 
which  generally  open  by  means  of  caps  below 
the  water  line. 

After  all  the  traps  which  have  screws  or  caps 
have  been  opened,  sponged  out,  and  the  caps 
replaced,  the  water-closet  traps,  which  have  no 
trap-screw,  must  be  cleared  of  water  by  means 
of  a  sponge  tied  to  a  stick  or  wire.  With 
most  closets,  it  is  easy  to  see  when  all  the  water 
has  been  removed,  the  trap  being  directly  under 
the  basin ;  but  in  closets  of  the  "  washout,"  or 
"  Brighton "  class  the  trap  is  concealed.  Some 
patterns  of  washout  closets  have  a  removable 
cover  over  the  trap,  by  means  of  which  the  trap 
is  easily  reached  and  cleared  of  water ;  but, 
where  no  such  cover  is  provided,  the  trap  may 
still  be  reached  with  a  sponge  attached  to  a 
bent  wire,  pushed  down  through  the  outlet  by 
which  the  water  escapes  from  the  basin,  and 
trial  will  show  when  all  the  water  is  removed. 
In  closets  of  a  still  older  type,  like  the  "Jen- 
nings," or  the  "  Demarest,"  with  side  outlets, 
the  trap,  if  any  exists,  may  be  reached  by  un- 
screwing the  plate  through  which  the  handle 
works,  and  lifting  out  the  plug. 

With  closets  of  the  siphon- jet  pattern  a  little 
water  remains,  after  the  trap  has  been  cleared, 
in  the  jet-tube.  There  is  not  usually  more  than 
half  a  teacupful ;  but,  as  this  is  quite  enough 
to  destroy  the  closet,  if  it  should  freeze,  it  must 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     185 

be  removed,  either  by  opening  a  little  screw 
inserted  by  some  makers  in  the  outside  of  the 
closet,  near  the  bottom,  or  by  means  of  a  small 
sponge,  tied  on  a  wire,  inserted  through  the  jet 
opening.  This  operation,  although  rather  te- 
dious, is  easier  and  safer  for  amateurs  than  the 
complete  removal  and  inversion  of  the  closet 
practised  by  plumbers. 

If  there  is  a  main  trap  at  the  foot  of  the  soil- 
pipe,  the  brass  screw  in  the  hand-hole  must  be* 
removed,  and  the  trap  dipped  or  sponged  out  in 
the  same  way  ;  and  the  plumbing  system  of  the 
house  may  then  be  considered  safe  against  freez- 
ing. After  the  sealing  water  of  the  traps  has, 
however,  been  removed  in  the  way  described, 
there  is  no  longer  anything  to  prevent  air  from 
the  sewer  from  entering  the  rooms  through  the 
unguarded  outlets  of  the  fixtures ;  so  that  it  is 
necessary  to  stop  these  with  wads  of  paper,  and 
to  paste  pieces  of  thick  paper  over  the  overflow 
openings,  or  the  carpets  and  furniture  of  the 
house,  when  it  is  occupied  again,  may  be  found 
offensively,  and  even  dangerously,  saturated  with 
the  foul  emanations  of  the  drains. 

Many  plumbers,  who  have  observed  that  traps,  Salt, 
after  thorough  clearing  out,  often  collect  water 
in  cold  weather,  probably  from  the  condensation 
in  them  of  the  warm  and  moist  vapors  of  the 
sewers,  put  a  handful  of  coarse  salt  in  the  main 
trap,  after  clearing  it  out,  and  before  replacing 
the  trap-screw  ;  and  the  same  treatment  is  some- 


186  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

times  applied  to  water-closet  traps,  and  to  the 
jet-tubes  of  siphon-jet  closets.  The  action  of 
the  salt  is,  if  water  should  collect  by  condensa- 
tion in  the  trap,  to  dissolve  in  it,  forming  a 
strong  brine,  which,  if  it  freezes  at  all,  only  con- 
geals into  a  soft  mass,  which  is  harmless.  For 
iron  main  traps,  and  for  closets  of  vitreous  china, 
this  treatment  is  often  useful ;  but  salt  should 
not  be  put  into  a  brass  or  plated  trap,  nor  should 
'it  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  brass  trap- 
screws  or  other  fittings,  on  account  of  the  dan- 
ger of  corrosion ;  nor  should  it  be  put  into  a 
closet  basin  of  ordinary  earthenware,  the  glaze 
of  which  may  be  affected  by  it. 

Where  plumbing  work  is  left  in  warm  weather, 
the  process  of  protection  is  much  simpler.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  drain  the  supply-pipes,  but  it  is 
advisable  to  shut  off  the  water  at  the  cellar  wall, 
or  even  at  the  street,  as  a  precaution  against 
waste  of  water  through  the  dripping  of  a  faucet, 
or  possible  leaks  through  the  spontaneous  splitting 
of  a  brass  pipe,  or  the  breaking  of  a  soldered 
joint,  or  from  lightning,  or  from  the  gnawing  of 
a  lead  pipe  by  thirsty  rats.  In  an  empty  house 
any  of  these  occurrences  may  cause  great  damage. 
In  regard  to  the  traps  there  is,  of  course,  no  dan- 
ger to  be  anticipated  from  freezing,  but  the  circula- 
tion of  air  which  goes  on  in  most  modern  drain-pipe 
systems  causes  the  evaporation  of  the  water  in 
the  traps ;  so  that,  after  a  period  varying  from 
two  to  four  weeks,  these  lose  their  seal,  and  sewer- 


TROUBLES   WITH   PLUMBING  —  REMEDY     187 

air  passes  freely  through  them,  and  escapes  into 
the  rooms.  It  is,  therefore,  desirable  that  a  house 
left  vacant  during  the  summer  should  be  visited 
about  twice  a  month,  and  water  poured  into  the 
various  fixtures,  so  as  to  keep  the  traps  replenished ; 
but,  where  this  is  impracticable,  oil  should,  before 
the  house  is  closed,  be  poured  into  each  fixture. 
Olive  oil,  or  lard  oil,  or  any  lubricating  oil  may 
be  used,  or  even  crude  petroleum,  but  not  kerosene, 
which  is  too  volatile  for  the  purpose.  A  very 
small  quantity  in  each  trap  is  sufficient,  the 
object  of  using  it  being  to  cover  the  water  in  the 
trap  with  a  floating  film  of  oil,  which  will  keep 
it  from  evaporation  for  a  long  time.  Glycerine 
is  often  used  for  the  same  purpose,  and  answers 
very  well,  although  more  of  it  is  needed,  as  it 
dissolves  to  some  extent  in  the  water. 


CHAPTER    X 

GAS-PIPES    AND    GAS-FIXTURES 

IT  is  fortunate  for  Americans  that  the  intro- 
duction of  lighting  by  coal  gas  into  this  country 
found  the  manufacture  of  wrought-iron  pipes  so 
well  developed  that  they  were  immediately 
adopted  for  distributing  the  gas  in  houses,  in- 
stead of  the  wretched  pipes  of  thin  lead  which 
were  for  so  many  years  employed  for  the  purpose 
in  England,  and  even  now  have  not  gone  out  of 
use.  With  us.  gas-pipes  are  always  of  iron,  put 
together  with  screw  joints,  and  are  tested,  when 
the  piping  of  a  house  is  completed,  by  pumping 
air  into  them  until  the  pressure  in  them  is  suffi- 
cient to  raise  the  mercury  in  a  manometer  tube. 
Unless  the  pipes  are  so  free  from  leakage  that 
the  mercury  in  the  manometer  remains  at  the 
same  height  for  some  hours,  the  gas  company  will 
not  furnish  gas  to  the  house  ;  so  that  the  fact  that 
the  house  is  supplied  with  gas  is  evidence  that 
the  pipes  have  been  tested  by  the  company's  in- 
spector, and  found  tight ;  and,  if  once  proved 
tight,  iron  pipes  are  not  very  liable  to  subsequent 
leakage,  unless  they  have  been  tampered  with  or 
altered  after  testing.  Where  such  leaks  occur, 
they  are  most  likely  to  be  near  the  fixtures.  In- 

188 


GAS-PIPES   AND   GAS-FIXTURES  189 

ferior  gas-fitters,  instead  of  making  the  outlets, 
or  "  nipples,"  of  their  pipes  just  long  enough  for 
the  fittings  to  be  screwed  on,  use  waste  pieces  of 
random  lengths ;  and  it  frequently  happens,  in 
consequence,  that  the  contractor  for  the  fixtures 
is  obliged,  before  he  can  put  on  his  brackets  or 
centre  lights,  to  unscrew  the  nipple  provided  for 
him,  and  put  on  one  of  proper  length.  As  the 
pipes  have  already  been  tested,  and  he  has  not, 
therefore,  the  fear  of  the  inspector  before  him,  the 
fixture  man  is  not  always  careful  to  make  the 
new  nipple  as  tight  as  the  old  one,  and  a  con- 
cealed leak  in  the  wall,  where  it  is  not  easily  dis- 
covered or  remedied,  may  be  the  consequence. 
The  inferior  gas-fitters  also  frequently  find  it  too 
much  trouble  to  arrange  their  pipes  so  that  the 
nipple  projects  exactly  at  right  angles  with  the 
wall  or  ceiling,  and,  as  a  result,  the  fixtures,  when 
attached  to  them,  make  various  angles  with  the 
plastered  surface.  As  this  is  ungraceful,  the  fix- 
ture man  endeavors  to  bring  the  nipples  to  the 
proper  position  by  screwing  a  long  piece  of  pipe 
on  them,  to  serve  as  a  lever,  and  violently  bend- 
ing them  to  the  angle  required.  The  fittings  for 
small  gas-pipes  are  usually  made  of  malleable  iron, 
so  that  they  can  accommodate  themselves  to  a 
certain  amount  of  bending ;  but  if  they,  or  the 
pipes  to  which  they  are  attached,  should  happen 
to  be  intractable,  a  bad  leak  may  be  caused  in  a 
partition  or  floor,  where  it  can  be  reached  only 
with  difficulty. 


190  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

Occasionally,  gas-pipes  may  leak  in  other  places. 
The  inferior  gas-fitters  sometimes  smuggle  in  split 
pipes  into  their  work,  filling  up  the  seam  with 
red  lead  putty,  which  stays  in  place  long  enough 
to  enable  the  piping  to  pass  the  inspector's  test, 
but  falls  out  later,  opening  a  dangerous  leak ;  or 
a  fitting  may  be  broken  by  an  accidental  blow ; 
or  an  old  and  leaky  meter  may  have  been  furnished 
by  the  gas  company,  or  it  may  not  have  been 
properly  connected  ;  and,  in  all  these  cases,  leak- 
ages may  be  caused  after  the  piping  has  been 
passed  by  the  inspector  ;  while  a  leak  in  a  street 
main  may  fill  the  cellars  of  the  neighboring  houses 
with  gas. 

From  whatever  source  it  may  proceed,  a  leak- 
age of  gas  should  never  be  investigated  with  the 
aid  of  a  lamp,  or  candle,  or  lighted  match.  In- 
numerable explosions,  many  of  them  very  de- 
structive, have  been  caused  in  this  way.  The 
proper  course,  when  any  serious  leak  is  suspected, 
is  to  feel  the  way,  if  daylight  is  not  available,  to 
the  meter,  and  shut  off  the  gas  from  the  house. 
Such  gas  as  has  already  escaped  will  very  soon 
dissipate  itself,  and  the  pipes  can  then  be  ex- 
amined with  safety.  If  the  defect  is  not  found, 
a  fixture,  or  a  nipple,  may  be  unscrewed,  and 
some  ether  poured  into  the  pipe,  closing  the  open- 
ing immediately.  The  ether  vapor  will  diffuse 
itself  through  the  pipes,  issuing  at  the  leak,  which 
can  thus  be  traced  by  the  smell,  and  corrected  as 
circumstances  may  require. 


GAS-PIPES   AND   GAS-FIXTURES 


191 


Leaks  in  or  about  fixtures  are  much  more  com-  Leaks  in 
mon  than  those  in  pipes,  and  are,  fortunately, 
more  easily  detected.  Besides  the  leaks  due  to 
the  substitution  of  a  new  nipple  for  one  which 
has  been  tested,  but  is  of  improper  length  for 
attaching  the  fixture,  other  leaks  are  often  due  to 
a  defective  joint  between  the  nipple  and  the  fix- 
ture. Where  the  nipple  for  a  ceiling  light  has 
been  carelessly  put  in,  so  that  the  chandelier  will 
not  hang  perpendicularly,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
attach  it  to  the  nipple  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint, 
and  such  joints  always  leak.  If  the  connection 
of  the  fixture  with  the  nipple  is  perfect,  there 
may  be  a  leak  at  the  key  ;  and,  if  the  keys  are 
tight,  the  burners  may  not  be  well  put  on.  In 
the  latter  case  the  gas  will  leak  only  when  the 
burner  is  lighted,  as  the  key  is  the  limit  of  the  por- 
tion of  the  fixture 
which  contains  gas 
at  other  times. 

Probably    nine-     /  j- {  ^  Gas-keys. 

tenths  of  the  leak- 
ages of  gas  which, 
almost  undetected, 
poison  the  air  of  a 
house,  are  at  the 
keys  of  the  fix- 
tures; and,  in  order 

,        .  FIG.  so. 

to  guard  against  or 

cure  such  leakages,  the  construction  of  a  gas-key 
should  be  understood  (Fig.  30).     In  substance,  it 


192  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

consists  of  a  tapering  plug,  carefully  fitted  to  a 
conical  hole  through  the  body  of  the  fixture.  The 
plug  has  a  hole  through  it,  which  can  be  turned 
so  as  to  coincide  with  the  bore  of  the  fixture, 
allowing  the  gas  to  pass,  or  at  right  angles  with 
it,  shutting  the  gas  off;  the  key  itself,  which  is 
simply  an  extension  of  the  plug,  serving  to  turn  it 
as  desired.  By  use,  the  plug  and  its  seat  wear, 
the  plug  growing  smaller,  and  the  conical  hole  in 
which  it  moves  larger,  until  there  would  be  room 
enough  between  them  to  allow  so  subtle  a  fluid 
as  illuminating  gas  to  pass,  if  it  were  not  for  the 
short  spiral  spring,  S,  which  is  held  by  a  screw 
to  the  end  of  the  plug,  but  presses  against  the 
body  of  the  fixture,  so  as  to  draw  the  plug  with 
considerable  force  into  its  conical  seat.  If  the 
plug  were  cylindrical,  it  would  be  drawn  far  in ; 
but,  being  tapered,  it  can  only  be  drawn  in  far 
enough  to  bring  it  into  close  contact  with  its 
conical  seat;  and,  as  the  surfaces  of  the  plug 
and  its  seat  are  wrprn  away,  the  spring  draws 
the  plug  farther  in,  still  keeping  the  joint  tight. 
In  practice,  however,  the  spiral  spring  is  so  short 
that  its  action  does  not  last  long  ;  and,  after  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  wear  has  taken  place,  the  plug 
is  no  longer  drawn  tightly  down  to  its  seat. 
The  key  may  then  be  tightened  by  screwing  in 
farther  the  screw  which  holds  the  spiral  spring, 
so  as  to  bring  the  latter  once  more  into  play ; 
but  continued  wear  again  loosens  the  plug,  and 
a  time  comes  when  the  tightening  screw  can  be 


GAS-PIPES   AND    GAS-FIXTURES  193 

turned  no  farther.  The  tension  on  the  key  could, 
even  then,  be  restored  by  stretching  out  the 
spring,  or  by  deepening  the  screw  hole  in  the 
end  of  the  plug  ;  but  either  of  these  operations 
would  probably  be  beyond  the  resources  of  an 
ordinary  householder,  and  it  is  generally  quite 
sufficient  to  remember,  in  opening  or  closing  any 
gas-key,  if  worn  and  loose,  to  push  it  slightly 
upward,  so  as  to  leave  it  firmly  sticking  in  its 
seat,  independent  of  the  tension  of  the  spring. 
This  simple  precaution  will  keep  the  key  from 
leaking  for  an  indefinite  period  ;  and  fixtures 
which  would,  from  wear,  leak  quite  seriously 
at  the  key  if  this  were  turned,  as  is  common, 
with  a  downward  pull,  will  be  perfectly  safe  if 
the  key  is  always  pushed  upward  in  turning. 

The  joints  of  swing  gas-brackets  are  made 
with  a  tapered  plug  and  spring  in  the  same 
way  ;  and,  as  these  are  not  usually  subjected 
to  much  wear,  an  occasional  tightening  of  the 
screw  should  keep  them  perfectly  tight. 

The  keys  of  gas-fixtures  are  liable  to  an  acci- 
dent of  a  very  dangerous  kind,  which  should  be 
guarded  against.  It  is  obvious  that,  if  the  gas 
is  shut  off  by  turning  the  key  so  that  the  hole 
in  the  plug  is  at  right  angles  with  the  bore  of 
the  fixture,  it  may  be  let  on  again  by  continuing 
to  turn  the  key  in  the  same  direction.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  judge  in  a  dark  room  whether  the  key 
is  left  exactly  at  right  angles  with  the  pipe  or 
not,  and  in  order  to  stop  it  at  the  proper  point 


194  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

a  peg  is  inserted  in  the  tapering  plug,  which 
strikes  against  a  shoulder  on  the  fixture  when 
the  key  is  turned  to  the  desired  angle,  and  pre- 
vents it  from  going  farther.  In  most  cases  this 
peg  is  nothing  but  a  bit  of  wire,  inserted  in  a 
hole  drilled  for  it,  and  it  often  falls  out,  or  is 
knocked  out  by  rough  handling  of  the  key,  re- 
moving the  only  safeguard  against  turning  the 
key  too  far,  and  thus  letting  the  gas  on  again, 
after  turning  it  off.  As  the  light  is,  of  course, 
extinguished  by  turning  the  gas  off,  that  which 
escapes  when  it  is  let  on  again  by  turning  the 
key  too  far  passes  unburned  into  the  room,  rap- 
idly poisoning  the  atmosphere.  Hundreds  of 
people  have  been  killed  in  this  w^ay,  particularly 
in  hotel  rooms,  where  the  peg  of  the  gas-fixture, 
in  consequence  of  the  rough  handling  to  which 
hotel  furniture  generally  is  subject,  has  fallen 
out,  so  that  strangers  turning  off  the  gas,  expect- 
ing to  feel  the  key  stopped  at  the  proper  point 
by  the  peg,  and  unable  in  the  darkness  to  see 
whether  it  is  at  the  proper  angle,  have  turned  it 
on  again,  to  perish  later  in  their  sleep  through 
the  slow  diffusion  of  the  poison  in  the  room. 
Some  fixtures  are  made  with  a  solid  projection, 
which  cannot  be  knocked  off,  instead  of  a  peg ; 
but  this  adds  a  few  cents  to  the  cost  of  the  key, 
and  it  is  not  likely  to  be  found  on  fixtures  unless 
specially  required.  In  ordinary  fixtures,  if  the 
peg  is  found  to  have  fallen  out,  so  that  the  key 
can  be  turned  beyond  its  proper  angle,  a  bit  of 


GAS-PIPES   AND   GAS-FIXTURES  195 

wire  of  the  proper  size  can  be  driven  into  the 
hole,  or  a  small  screw  firmly  inserted.  Either 
of  these  will  make  the  fixture  safe. 

Joints  in  fixtures,  other  than  at  keys,  often  leak  Leaky 
slightly.  Such  leaks  can  generally  be  stopped,  ]011 
at  least  temporarily,  by  an  application  of  soap. 
Any  hard  soap  will  answer,  and  it  is  usually 
sufficient  to  put  a  little  around  the  place  where 
the  smell  of  gas  indicates  a  leak,  and  work  it 
into  the  joint  with  the  fingers.  In  course  of 
time  the  soap  dries  and  crumbles  away,  but  a 
fresh  application  is  easily  made.  Even  keys,  if 
they  cannot  be  kept  from  leaking  except  by  mak- 
ing them  inconveniently  tight  by  means  of  the 
screw,  may  often  be  advantageously  treated  with 
soap  in  the  same  way. 

Gas-fixtures  should  be  well  cared  for,  as  the  Care  of  gas- 
charge  for  taking  them  down,  after  they  have 
become  dingy,  refinishing  them,  and  putting  them 
up  again,  is  apt  to  be  extortionate,  sometimes 
exceeding  the  original  price  of  the  fixtures.  Ex- 
cept the  very  costly  specimens  plated  with  pure 
gold,  nearly  all  gas-fixtures  are  made  of  brass, 
covered  with  shellac  varnish,  to  keep  it  from 
oxidation.  The  brass  is  finished  in  a  variety  of 
ways  before  lacquering,  some  fixtures  being 
highly  polished,  giving  what  the  dealers  call  a 
"  gold "  finish ;  while  others  are  rubbed  with 
emery  cloth  to  impart  to  them  an  "  antique " 
character ;  the  appearance  of  antiquity  being 
often  heightened  by  touching  the  crevices  and 


196  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

hollows  with  black  varnish,  to  simulate  the 
accumulated  dirt  of  centuries.  Some  fixtures 
are  brought  to  a  beautiful  blue  or  purple  "  steel 
finish,"  by  means  -of  antimony  solution,  before 
lacquering ;  and  others  are  colored  in  imitation 
of  bronze,  while  occasional  specimens  are 
painted,  in  black,  blue,  red,  or  other  colors  to 
suit  particular  requirements.  Many  of  the  so- 
called  «  wrought-iron  "  gas-fixtures  are  really  of 
painted  brass ;  but  fixtures  can  be  had  of  true 
wrought  iron,  as  well  as  of  glass,  the  latter, 
however,  being  simply  of  pieces  of  glass,  in  balls, 
prisms,  Venetian  flowers  or  other  forms,  strung 
on  brass  piping,  which  is  plated  with  nickel  or 
silver  when  balls  or  prisms  of  clear  glass  are  to 
be  strung  upon  it.  The  glass  fixtures  are  beauti- 
ful and  durable,  and  also  very  expensive.  The 
iron  ones  are  very  durable,  and  for  some  pur- 
poses beautiful ;  but  the  black  color  generally 
put  on  them  does  not  harmonize  with  delicate 
decorations,  and  they  do  not  often  look  well 
painted  in  other  colors ;  so  that  the  great  major- 
ity of  fixtures  are  of  brass. 

So  long  as  the  lacquer  remains  on  the  fixtures, 
to  protect  them  from  the  air,  they  do  not  cor- 
rode, but  the  color  gradually  changes,  and  they 
may  acquire  an  unpleasant  appearance  from  fly- 
specks  ;  so  that  the  common  practice  of  covering 
them  in  summer  with  netting  has  something  to 
recommend  it.  The  bronze  and  steel  finished 
fixtures,  being  darker,  show  stains  much  less; 


GAS-PIPES   AND   GAS-FIXTURES  197 

but,  when  they  finally  become  shabby,  they  are 
not  so  easily  restored,  as  the  colored  finish  must 
be  taken  off  and  renewed. 

Where  the  fixtures  are  of  plain  brass,  the  in- 
genious householder  may  save  himself  a  good 
deal  of  money,  and  obtain  a  tolerably  satisfactory 
result,  by  rubbing  them,  after  they  have  become 
unbearably  dingy,  with  fine  emery-cloth,  fol- 
lowed, perhaps,  by  crocus-cloth,  to  give  greater 
smoothness.  This  treatment  will  give  only  the 
"antique  finish";  but,  as  the  antique  finish  is 
fashionable,  the  experimenter  need  give  himself  no 
anxiety  on  that  account ;  and  he  will  often  find 
that  his  fixtures  please  him  better  in  that  condi- 
tion than  when  glittering  from  the  buffing-wheel. 

After  the  brass  has  been  cleaned  in  this  way  Lacquering, 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  operator,  it  is  desirable 
to  protect  the  work  from  the  air  by  a  fresh  coat 
of  lacquer.  Brass  finishers  usually  employ  for 
this  purpose  a  thin  shellac  varnish  ;  but  the  brass 
must  be  heated  before  the  shellac  is  applied,  to 
prevent  it  from  « chilling,"  and  forming  dull 
spots ;  so  that,  for  the  amateur,  the  best  lacquer 
is  the  celluloid  varnish  known  as  "  Zapon,"  which 
can  be  used  on  metal  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture, and  may  be  applied  with  a  brush.  If 
lacquer  of  any  sort  is  unattainable,  the  brass  may 
be  left  without  it,  but  the  cleaning  will  soon  have 
to  be  repeated  ;  while  a  coat  of  good  lacquer  will 
preserve  the  brightness  of  the  metal  for  years. 


CHAPTER   XI 

ELECTRICAL    FIXTURES 

incandes-  THE    inspection    of    wiring    for    incandescent 

cent  lights,  ijghtg  ]n  buildings,  on  behalf  of  the  insurance 
companies,  is  now  so  rigid  that  the  householder 
whose  wires  have  been  accepted  by  the  insurance 
inspector  can  feel  himself  tolerably  safe  in  regard 
to  them.  They  should,  however,  be  occasionally 
examined,  where  visible,  to  make  sure  that  the 
insulation  is  not  wearing  off,  and  that  they  are 
not  exposed  to  water.  Any  wet  surface,  or  damp 
rag,  or  piece  of  metal  in  contact  with  the  wires, 
which  can  act  as  a  medium,  even  of  very  slight 
electrical  communication,  between  two  wires  of 
opposite  polarity,  will  increase  the  amount  of 
current  used,  as  shown  by  the  meter,  without 
producing  any  useful  result ;  and,  if  the  leakage 
is  serious,  it  involves  great  danger  of  setting  the 
house  on  fire.  Safety-fuses,  also,  in  dwelling- 
house  work,  are  frequently  fixed  on  wooden 
boards,  and  enclosed  in  a  wooden  cabinet,  al- 
though the  burning  out  of  a  fuse,  through  an 
accidental  short-circuit  or  otherwise,  often  sets 
fire  to  dry  woodwork  near  it. 

Incandescent  lamps  themselves  are  often  care- 
lessly handled,  particularly  where    they  are  at- 

198 


ELECTRICAL   FIXTURES  199 

tached  to  flexible  wires,  as  is  frequently  the  case 
in  dwelling-houses.  It  should  never  be  forgotten 
that  the  common  belief,  that  an  incandescent 
lamp  never  gets  very  hot,  is  correct  only  when 
there  is  a  free  circulation  of  air  around  it ;  and, 
when  this  circulation  is  impeded,  the  bulb  soon 
becomes  hot  enough  to  set  fire  to  inflammable 
materials.  Destructive  conflagrations  have  been 
caused  by  leaving  incandescent  lamps,  attached 
to  a  flexible  wire,  in  contact  with  bundles  of 
cloth,  or  similar  articles,  and  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  exercise  too  much  care  in  keeping  such  lamps 
out  of  harm's  way. 

Where  current  for  incandescent  electric  lights  Electric 
is  not  available,  an  electric  spark  is  often  used  for  gas" lg  ing 
lighting  gas,  either  in  a  "  pendant "  or  "  pull " 
burner,  or  an  «  automatic  "  burner.  In  the  "  pen- 
dant "  burner  the  pulling  of  a  chain  serves  to  turn 
on  the  gas,  and  at  the  same  time  to  send  a  spark 
through  it  between  two  platinum  wires,  which 
are  made  to  pass  by  each  other,  with  momentary 
contact  in  the  escaping  stream,  a  second  pull 
turning  the  gas  off  again.  In  the  automatic 
burner  the  gas  is  turned  on  or  off  by  means  of 
electromagnets,  concealed  in  the  casing  of  the 
burner,  the  current  which  operates  them  being 
controlled  by  one  or  more  pairs  of  buttons,  placed 
in  any  convenient  part  of  the  house,  and  serving 
at  the  same  time  to  produce  the  necessary  spark 
for  lighting  the  stream  of  gas.  If  well  put  in,  and 
well  cared  for,  a  system  of  this  kind  is  extremely 


200  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

convenient,  and  gives  very  little  trouble.  The 
pendant,  or  pull,  burners  are  kept  free  from  any 
leakage  of  gas,  the  supply  being  controlled  by  a 
tapered  plug,  just  as  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary 
key.  In  the  automatic  burners,  as  the  tapered 
plug  must  be  put  in  so  loosely  as  to  be  readily 
thrown  in  either  direction  by  the  attraction  of 
the  little  electromagnets,  there  is  much  more 
danger  of  leakage;  but,  if  obtained  from  a  good 
•manufacturer,  they  are  generally  reliable.  The 
.electrical  part  of  the  system,  however,  is  easily 
/thrown  out  of  order  by  carelessness,  and  its 
operation  should  be  understood,  so  that  any  de- 
rangement may  be  quickly  and  intelligently 
remedied. 

The  current  for  electric  gas-lighting  is  obtained 
irom  a  battery,  usually  of  six  or  less  cells,  of  the 
ordinary  open-circuit  type,  with  carbon  prisms 
for  conducting  electrodes,  the  soluble  electrode 
in  each  cell  being  a  rod  or  plate  of  zinc,  and  the 
cells  being  filled  with  a  saturated  solution  of 
ammonium  chloride.  As  the  battery  current  is  too 
low  in  tension  to  give  a  spark  capable  of  lighting 
a  stream  of  gas,  a  "  spark-coil,"  consisting  of  a 
large  wooden  spool,  wound  with  insulated  wire, 
and  having  a  "  core  "  of  iron  wires,  is  introduced 
in  the  circuit,  by  which  the  tension  of  the  current 
is  sufficiently  raised  to  give  the  spark  desired. 
Battery.  In  order  to  do  their  work  well,  the  cells  of 

the  battery  should  be  filled  about  two-thirds  full 
of  the  ammonium  chloride  solution ;  the  carbon 


ELECTRICAL   FIXTURES  201 

prisms,  which  are  generally  secured  by  rubber 
bands  to  a  "  pole  piece "  passing  through  the 
glass  cover  of  the  cell,  should  be  in  place ;  the 
zinc  rod  forming  the  soluble  electrode  should  be 
in  good  condition,  and  the  wires,  which  should 
connect  the  zinc  of  one  cell  to  the  carbon  pole 
piece  of  the  next,  must  be  firmly  secured  by  their 
appropriate  binding-screws ;  the  extra  wires,  one 
from  the  carbon  at  one  end  of  the  battery,  and 
the  other  from  the  zinc  at  the  other  end,  being 
properly  connected  with  the  spark  coil,  and 
through  it  with  the  wires  of  the  lighting  system. 
To  produce  the  spark  required  it  should  then  only 
be  necessary  to  make  momentary  contact,  by 
means  of  the  appropriate  button,  for  the  automatic 
burner,  or  to  draw  the  platinum  wires  of  a  pull 
burner  against  and  past  each  other  by  means 
of  the  chain ;  and,  if  the  spark  fails  to  appear, 
a  systematic  investigation  should  be  made  to 
determine  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

The  burners  should  first  be  examined,  remov- 
ing for  the  purpose  the  cap  of  automatic  burners, 
as  it  often  happens  that  the  difficulty  is  not 
electrical  but  mechanical,  resulting  simply  from 
the  gumming  up  of  the  moving  parts  of  the 
burner  with  oil  and  dust,  or  the  displacement  of 
the  ratchet  wheel  which  actuates  the  gas-key  in 
the  pull  burners,  or  of  a  spring,  or  of  the  plati- 
num wires,  so  that  they  do  not  come  in  contact 
when  drawn  past  each  other  by  the  chain,  or  by 
the  electromagnets  of  an  automatic  burner. 


202  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

If,  after  any  defects  in  these  particulars  have 
been  remedied,  by  washing  off  old  oil  with  kero- 
sene if  necessary,  or  by  replacing  any  disarranged 
parts,  the  spark  still  fails  to  appear,  the  electrical 
portion  of  the  apparatus  may  be  examined.  If 
the  battery  has  been  long  in  use,  the  sal-ammoniac 
solution  may  have  evaporated  to  dryness,  or  may 
have  been  reduced  to  so  low  a  level  as  no  longer 
to  act  vigorously  on  the  zinc ;  or  its  chemical 
energy  may  be  exhausted,  as  will  be  the  case 
after  a  year  or  two  of  use.  In  any  case  the 
liquid  in  the  cells  should  be  filled  up  to  the  two- 
thirds  level,  by  adding  to  what  is  left  in  them 
either  water  alone,  or  a  fresh  saturated  solution, 
made  by  dissolving  sal-ammoniac  in  hot  water. 
The  cells  should  not  be  filled  more  than  two- 
thirds  full,  or  the  solution  will  creep  over  the 
edge  by  crystallization.  Pure  ammonium  chloride 
only  should  be  used,  such  as  is  sold  by  dealers  in 
photographic  goods  and  general  chemicals,  put  up 
in  pasteboard  boxes,  or  by  dealers  in  electrical 
goods  in  small  paper  bags,  each  containing  a  suf- 
ficient charge  for  an  ordinary  battery  cell. 

After  the  refilling  of  the  cells,  a  few  minutes 
should  be  allowed  for  the  battery  to  recover  its 
powers,  and  another  attempt  may  be  made  to 
obtain  a  spark.  If  this  is  still  unsuccessful,  the 
zincs  may  be  lifted  out  of  the  cells  and  examined. 
They  dissolve  slowly,  and  the  immersed  portion 
of  one  or  more  may  be  found  to  have  disappeared, 
of  course  suspending  the  action  of  the  battery. 


ELECTRICAL   FIXTURES  203 

Replacing  the  zincs  which  are  nearly  or  quite 
past  their  usefulness  by  new  ones,  a  supply  of 
which  may  with  advantage  be  procured  at  any 
electrical  goods  store  and  kept  on  hand,  the  wires 
should  next  be  inspected.  It  is  very  possible 
that  they  may  be  found  wrongly  connected,  or 
hooked  loosely  over  the  binding-screws,  instead 
of  being  firmly  held  under  them  so  as  to  make 
good  electrical  contact ;  or  a  wire  may  have  been 
corroded  through  and  separated  by  contact  with 
sal-ammoniac  solution,  and  the  continuity  of  the 
current  thereby  broken  ;  or  the  wires  connecting 
the  battery  with  the  spark-coil,  or  the  spark-coil 
with  the  house  system,  may  be  broken,  or  cor- 
roded, or  loosely  connected,  or  short-circuited, 
either  with  each  other  or  with  some  extraneous 
conductor,  often  the  gas-fixture  itself. 

If  the  battery  has  enough  energy  left  in  it  to  Testing  for 
give  a  small  spark,  although  not  a  sufficiently 
vigorous  one  for  lighting  gas,  it  may  be  used  to 
test  the  house  wires  for  short-circuits  by  discon- 
necting the  main  wire  from  the  carbon  end  of 
the  battery,  and  attaching  to  the  carbon  a  short 
piece  of  wire  for  use  in  testing.  All  the  house 
wires  that  are  accessible  may  then  be  touched 
with  the  end  of  this  testing  wire,  and  the  appear- 
ance of  a  spark  will  show  a  short-circuit  in  the 
wire  touched.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  all  the 
wires  in  the  house  system  are  interrupted  at  some 
point,  the  pressure  of  a  button,  or  pulling  of  a 
chain,  being  necessary  to  close  the  connection ; 


204  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

and  if  a  current  from  the  battery  can  pass  through 
any  one  of  them  without  the  pressing  of  a  button 
or  pulling  of  a  chain,  the  circuit  of  which  that 
wire  forms  a  part  must  be  improperly  closed  at 
some  point  of  its  course,  so  that  the  current 
passes  without  the  interposition  of  the  button  or 
chain.  The  effect  would  of  course  be  the  same 
without  disconnecting  the  house  wires,  but  it 
would  be  invisible,  and  the  object  of  making  the 
disconnection  and  using  the  testing  wire  is  simply 
to  reveal  the  passage  of  the  current  by  a  spark. 

If,  as  is  the  practice  of  the  best  contractors, 
every  house  wire  is  furnished  with  a  tag,  near 
the  battery,  showing  to  what  circuit  it  belongs, 
the  detection  of  the  one  requiring  attention  will 
be  easy ;  and,  even  if  there  are  no  such  tags,  the 
test  will  furnish  useful  indications  as  to  what 
further  steps  may  be  necessary. 

If  no  short-circuit  is  revealed  by  the  test,  the 
house  wires  may  be  connected  again,  and  the 
buttons  which  control  the  automatic  burners 
examined,  by  unscrewing  and  taking  off  the 
plate.  The  contact  springs,  which  are  pressed 
by  the  button  to  make  connection,  sometimes 
break,  or  fall  out  of  place,  either  short-circuiting 
the  wire,  or  making  the  button  useless ;  and  the 
wires  sometimes  slip  out  from  under  the  bind- 
ing-screws. 

Polarization  If  everything  is  found  in  order  here,  the 
trouble  is  probably  due  to  the  polarization  of 
the  battery,  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  a  very 


ELECTRICAL   FIXTURES  205 

common  accident  with  electric  gas-lighting  bat- 
teries. 

These  batteries,  like  those  used  for  operating 
electrical  bells  and  burglar  alarms,  are  always 
of  the  "  open-circuit  "  type,  in  which  the  chemi- 
cal action  which  generates  the  electricity  is 
suspended  except  when  the  electrical  current  is 
actually  passing  ;  so  that,  until  the  circuit  in  any 
wire  connected  with  it  is  completed  by  making 
contact  between  the  separated  portions,  either  by 
pressing  a  contact  spring  with  a  button,  or  by 
making  the  platinum  wires  of  a  pendant  burner 
meet  by  pulling  the  chain,  the  battery  remains 
quiescent,  no  chemical  change  taking  place  in  it. 
This  property  of  open-circuit  batteries  particu- 
larly adapts  them  to  house  work,  where  they  are 
called  upon  only  occasionally  for  currents ;  but 
it  is  accompanied  with  the  inconvenience  that, 
being  suited  only  to  momentary  currents,  they 
deteriorate  rapidly  if  the  duration  of  the  cur- 
rent is  prolonged,  the  carbons  of  the  cells  becom- 
ing saturated  with  bubbles  of  hydrogen,  which 
prevent  further  chemical  action.  This  effect  is 
called  polarization,  and  any  short-circuiting  or 
crossing  of  the  wires,  by  permitting  the  pas- 
sage of  a  continuous  current,  soon  polarizes  the 
battery  and  makes  it  inert.  If  the  current 
passes  only  for  a  few  hours,  the  hydrogen  bub- 
bles which  fill  the  pores  of  the  carbons  may  be 
slowly  absorbed,  so  that,  after  it  has  been 
allowed  to  recuperate  for  several  days,  the 


206  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

battery  may-  regain  its  powers ;  but  a  current 
continued  for  several  days  polarizes  the  carbons 
so  effectually  that  they  can  be  restored  only 
with  difficulty. 

In  pendant  burners,  where  the  current  passes, 
in  the  form  of  a  spark,  when  a  light  platinum 
wire,  arranged  with  a  spring,  is  drawn  past  a 
short  fixed  wire,  attached  to  the  burner  in  such 
a  position  that  the  spark  will  be  in  the  stream 
of  gas,  the  spring  wire  should  be  drawn,  by 
means  of  the  chain,  entirely  past  the  fixed  wire, 
so  that,  after  making  contact,  it  will  pass  be- 
yond, opening  the  circuit  again  ;  and,  when  the 
chain  is  released,  the  wire,  which  is  drawn  back 
by  a  spring,  should  brush  past  the  fixed  wire, 
making  a  second  contact,  accompanied  by  a 
second  spark,  and  continue  its  course,  again 
opening  the  circuit.  As  there  is  a  certain  amount 
of  friction  between  the  two  wires,  as  one  brushes 
past  the  other,  the  force  of  the  spring  is  some- 
times barely  sufficient  to  overcome  this  friction  ; 
and,  if  the  chain  is  released  slowly,  the  wires 
may  be  left  in  contact.  This,  of  course,  permits 
a  continuous  current  to  flow,  so  long  as  they  re- 
main in  contact,  and  the  battery,  in  consequence, 
immediately  begins  to  lose  its  efficiency  b}^  po- 
larization ;  so  that,  a  few  hours  later,  it  will  give 
only  a  feeble  spark,  or  none  at  all,  at  any  of  the 
burners. 

As  soon  as  this  phenomenon  is  observed,  all 
the  pull  burners  should  be  immediately  exam- 


ELECTRICAL   FIXTURES  207 

ined,  to  see  if  the  platinum  wires  have  been  left 
in  contact ;  and  if  any  are  found  in  that  condi- 
tion, they  should  at  once  be  separated.  The  ap- 
paratus must  then  be  left  to  itself  for  three  or 
four  days,  or  even  for  a  week,  and  at  the  end  of 
that  time  the  power  of  the  battery  may  be  found 
fully  restored.  If,  however,  this  should  be  in- 
sufficient to  depolarize  it,  new  carbons  may  be 
put  in ;  or  the  old  ones  may  be  lifted  out  of  the 
cell  and  soaked  for  an  hour  or  two  in  hot  water, 
or  moderately  heated  in  an  oven,  to  drive  the 
hydrogen  bubbles  out  of  the  pores,  and  then  re- 
placed. 

The  battery  used  for  operating  electric  bells  Electric 
is  similar  to  that  for  electric  gas-lighting,  but 
smaller,  two  or  three  cells  being  sufficient ;  and 
no  spark  coil  is  interposed  in  the  circuit.  It  is 
liable  to  polarization  in  the  same  way,  if  the 
wires  are  crossed  without  insulation,  or  are  other- 
wise short-circuited ;  and  the  contact  springs, 
under  the  buttons,  not  infrequently  break,  mak- 
ing the  button  inoperative.  These  troubles,  how- 
ever, are  easily  remedied,  and  the  battery  cells, 
if  not  polarized,  may  at  any  time  be  restored 
to  efficiency  by  new  zincs,  and  fresh  charges  of 
ammonium  chloride ;  so  that  very  little  skill  is 
required  to  keep  a  bell  battery  permanently  in 
good  condition. 

Burglar-alarms  are  operated  in  the  same  way  Burgiar- 
as  other  electric  bells,  and  by  a  battery  of  the  a 
same  sort.     As,  however,  the  bells  are  rung  by 


208  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

means  of  contact  springs  brought  into  action  by 
raising  a  window,  or  opening  a  door,  or  stepping 
on  a  door-mat,  and  as  contact  springs  in  the 
frame  of  a  window  or  door  are  very  liable  to  de- 
terioration by  weather  or  by  accident,  the  sys- 
tem should  be  tested  at  regular  intervals,  and 
any  defects  corrected,  if  it  is  to'  be  kept  in 
efficient  condition.  The  wires  of  burglar-alarms 
also,  particularly  if  they  are  put  in  by  irresponsi- 
ble travelling  electricians,  are  often  very  care- 
lessly run,  over  floors,  or  on  walls,  so  that  they 
soon  become  damaged. 

The  householder  of  a  scientific  turn  of  mind 
will  find  interest,  as  well  as  economy,  in  caring 
for  the  electrical  appliances  connected  with  his 
dwelling ;  and,  with  a  little  insulated  wire,  a 
battery  cell  or  two,  and  a  few  switches  or  but- 
tons, he  can  often  arrange  very  convenient  tem- 
porary call-bells  or  burglar-alarms  for  himself. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE    CARE    OF    WOODWORK 

THE  woodwork  used  for  finishing  a  house,  as 
distinguished  from  that  which  forms  a  structural 
part  of  it,  may  be  divided  into  two  portions,  one 
comprising  the  "  standing  finish,"  including  the 
bases,  frames,  and  architraves  of  doors  and  win- 
dows, wainscoting,  panelling,  mantels,  and  other 
ornamental  woodwork  fixed  in  position  ;  while 
the  other  will  include  the  floors  and  stairs,  which 
are  usually  of  different  material  from  the  doors 
and  standing  finish,  and  require  very  different 
treatment.  As,  however,  the  treatment  of  floors 
and  stairs  is  much  simpler  than  that  of  wood- 
work of  other  kinds,  it  will  be  best  to  consider 
it  first. 

Floors    to    be  covered    with    carpets    are  best  Floors, 
made  of  white  pine,  where  it  can  be  procured. 
Clear  pine  is  extravagantly  costly,  as  the  supply 
is  very   limited,   but   in  certain   districts,  where 
the  forests  have  been  replanted,  second  quality 
pine  can  be  obtained  at  a  moderate  price,  which,  Pine  floors, 
although  it  contains  many  knots,  and  is    unat- 
tractive in  appearance,  is  soft,  so  that  tacks  are 
easily  driven  into  it,  shrinks  little,  and  lies  per- 
manently flat,  so  that  carpets  laid  over  it  wear 


210  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

well.  It  is,  however,  unsuited  for  staining  or 
varnishing,  as  it  is  so  soft  that  the  stain  soon 
wears  through,  -and  the  knots  show  even  through 
a  dark  stain.  On  account  of  the  greater  expense, 
as  well  as  the  rougher  appearance,  of  second 
quality  pine,  most  builders  make  floors  intended 

Spruce  to  be  carpeted  out  of  spruce,  which  is  cheap, 
nearly  free  from  knots,  and  white  and  agreeable 
in  appearance  when  fresh.  Its  disadvantages  are 
that  floor-boards  made  of  it  are  disposed  to  curl 
up  at  the  edges,  forming  ridges,  which  greatly 
hasten  the  wearing-out  of  a  carpet  laid  over 
them  ;  while  there  is  little  adhesion  between  the 
annual  rings  of  the  tree,  so  that  the  wood,  when 
dry,  particularly  if  cut  from  old  trees,  is  liable  to 
splinter.  Although  spruce  is  not  quite  so  soft 
as  pine,  tacks  are  easily  driven  into  it,  and  it 
makes  a  tolerably  attractive  floor  when  stained ; 
although  the  stain  soon  wears  through.  The 
best  spruce  flooring  for  staining  is  that  cut  from 
sapling  trees,  the  wood  of  which  is  much  softer, 
and  less  disposed  to  splinter,  than  that  from  old 
trees. 

staining  It  is  very  common  to  stain  floors  of  soft  wood, 

such  as  pine  or  spruce,  either  all  over,  or  around 
the  edges,  leaving  the  middle  to  be  covered  with 
a  rug ;  and  amateurs  often  find  much  satisfac- 
tion in  experimenting  in  this  way.  Although  oil 
stains  are  sold  for  the  purpose  in  cans,  ready 
mixed,  and  labelled  "  light  oak,"  "  dark  oak," 
"  cherry,"  and  other  colors,  and  can  be  put  on 


THE   CARE  OF  WOODWORK  211 

with  little  trouble,  they  are  apt  to  give  a  muddy 
effect,  unless  made  very  dark ;  and  the  best  re- 
sults are  obtained,  although  with  more  trouble, 
by  using  water  stains,  which  can  also  be  bought 
of  various  colors,  ready  for  use.  These  soak  much 
better  than  the  oil  stains  into  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  and  give  a  clearer  color.  They  must,  how- 
ever, be  varnished  after  they  are  thoroughly  dry, 
using  two,  or  even  more,  coats  of  some  first-class 
floor  varnish,  such  as  Murphy's,  Crockett's,  Rosen- 
berg's, the  Detroit  Varnish  Company's,  or  many 
others.  Such  varnish  as  this  cannot  be  bought  for 
less  than  $3.50  or  |4.00  a  gallon  ;  but  it  is  a  waste 
of  time  to  put  on  a  cheap  varnish,  which  will  either 
be  so  sticky  that  dust  will  cling  to  it,  and  soon 
blacken  and  ruin  the  floor,  or  will  contain  rosin, 
so  that  every  spot  of  water,  and  every  nail  in  a 
boot-heel,  will  make  a  white  mark  on  it.  As  it 
is  the  varnish  which  defends  the  floor  against 
wear,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  put  on  too  much 
of  it,  and  it  is  impossible  to  have  it  too  good.  If 
the  skill  of  the  artist  is  not  sufficient  to  put  it 
on  evenly,  it  may  be  rubbed  with  fine  sandpaper, 
to  smooth  it,  before  the  last  coat ;  and  a  good 
effect,  less  glittering,  as  well  as  less  slippery, 
than  the  plain  varnish,  may  be  obtained,  after 
the  last  coat  of  varnish  is  dry,  by  going  over 
it  with  a  little  floor  wax,  and  polishing  with 
a  rag  or  brush.  An  oil  stain  is  also  greatly  im- 
proved, both  in  appearance  and  durability,  by 
varnishing,  and  in  appearance,  although  not 


212  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

much  in  durability,  by  waxing ;  but  it  never 
acquires  the  transparency  and  clearness  of  a  well- 
varnished  water  stain. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  appearance  of  a  stained 
floor,  it  should  be  watched  for  signs  of  wear,  and 
the  worn  spots  retouched  with  varnish  before  the 
protecting  covering  is  worn  through.  If  the  wear 
penetrates  the  varnish,  and  reaches  the  stain,  it 
is  difficult  to  patch  it  so  as  not  to  make  a  spot. 

Even  if  the  floor,  before  staining,  is  already 
worn  or  splintered,  it  can  be  made  presentable 
by  planing  out  the  splinters  or  worn  places,  so  as 
to  expose  a  new  and  fresh  surface.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  go  to  the  expense  of  planing  the 
whole  floor.  Although  planing  only  in  spots  will 
leave  the  surface  uneven,  this  is  not  a  serious  fault 
in  a  floor,  in  comparison  with  a  good  color  and 
pleasant  gloss.  The  oak  floors  of  an  old  French 
palace  are  usually  anything  but  even,  yet  they 
lose  little  of  their  effect  in  consequence. 

Where  a  soft-wood  floor  is  too  much  worn 
and  splintered  in  the  middle  to  be  worth  stain- 
ing, but  is  in  tolerable  condition  around  the  edges, 
as  is  often  the  case,  a  good  effect  can  be  obtained 
by  staining  only  the  border,  leaving  the  middle 
of  the  floor  to  be  permanently  covered  by  a  large 
rug,  or  "  art  square  "  carpet,  or,  still  better,  by  a 
special  composition,  consisting  of  a  centre  of  a 
plain-colored  velvet  or  tapestry  carpeting,  selected 
to  suit  the  scheme  of  color  intended  for  the  room, 
with  a  border  of  either  tapestry  or  Brussels,  the 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  213 

latter  being  in  some  respects  preferable,  as  the 
contrast  between  the  cut  pile  of  the  tapestry  or 
velvet  centre  and  the  uncut  pile  of  the  Brussels 
border  makes  the  centre  look  softer,  and  there  is  a 
greater  range  of  Brussels  borders  to  choose  from. 
The  border  may,  of  course,  be  of  any  width,  but, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  full  Brussels  width  of 
twenty-seven  inches  would  be  suitable  only  for 
a  rather  large  room,  and  an  eighteen-inch  border 
would  be  better  in  most  cases.  If  plain  tapestry 
or  velvet  carpeting  cannot  be  found  of  a  suitable 
color,  felt  will  answer,  but  it  is  less  easily  kept 
clean  than  a  material  with  a  cut  pile.  In  any 
case,  the  housekeeper  is  likely  to  hear  animadver- 
sions from  the  neighbors  on  the  folly  of  using 
plain  carpeting,  which  "  shows  every  mark  "  ;  but 
people  who  have  to  consider  economy  may  con- 
sole themselves  by  the  reflection  that  a  plain  car- 
pet, if  of  reasonably  good  quality,  wears  much 
longer  than  a  figured  one,  partly  because  certain 
dyes  corrode  the  wool  in  figured  carpets,  and 
cause  the  figures  of  that  color  to  wear  through 
first,  and  partly  because  some  dyes  fade  more 
than  others,  and  the  fading  of  the  figures  of  the 
most  fugitive  colors  makes  the  whole  carpet  look 
shabby  ;  and  those  who  look  to  artistic  pleasure, 
as  well  as  economy,  will  find  themselves  repaid 
a  hundred-fold  for  a  little  extra  trouble  in  brush- 
ing by  the  restfulness  of  the  broad  mass  of  color 
in  the  middle  of  the  room,  softened,  as  it  always 
is,  by  the  varying  shadows  upon  it,  and  even  by 


214  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

,  fading,  which  lends  tone  to  a  plain  carpet  where 
it  only  brings  shabbiness  to  a  figured  one.  In 
case  an  effect  of  special  interest  is  desired,  a  beau- 
tiful rug  may  be  made  by  embroidering  on  plain 
carpeting,  using  in  preference  naturalistic  mo- 
tives, such  as  a  spray  of  wild  roses,  or  of  trailing 
arbutus,  or  various  other  flowers.  The  embroid- 
ery should  be  large  and  simple,  to  be  effective, 
and  can  be  done  in  worsted  or  silk,  or  a  mix- 
ture of  the  two. 

Floor-  To  return  to   the   stained   floor-border  which 

is  to  frame  these  creations,  it  will  generally  be 
found  that  a  width  of  twenty  inches  for  the 
exposed  part  of  the  staining  is  the  most  satisfac- 
tory, whether  the  room  is  large  or  small.  With  a 
narrower  border  than  this,  chairs  standing  against 
the  wall  are  liable  to  have  their  front  feet  on  the 
rug,  tilting  them  back  unpleasantly,  while,  with 
a  wider  border,  the  rug  which  covers  the  middle 
portion  of  the  floor  is  apt,  even  in  a  large  room, 
to  have  a  shrunken  appearance,  which  is  dis- 
agreeable. Bay-windows  and  similar  recesses 
may,  however,  with  advantage  have  their  whole 
floor  stained,  the  border  being  carried  straight 
across  them  ;  and  the  borders  at  the  ends  of  the 
rooms  may  without  objection  be  wider  than 
those  at  the  sides.  In  any  case,  the  border 
should  be  painted  three  or  four  inches  wider 
than  it  is  intended  to  show,  so  that  a  slight  dis- 
placement of  the  rug  may  not  disclose  the  bare 
wood. 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  215 

Where  a  stain  cannot  be  found  or  made  which  Painted 
harmonizes  with  the  rugs  or  furniture,  or  where 
the  floor  has  already  been  stained,  and  allowed 
to  become  irretrievably  shabby,  it  is  often  best 
to  use  paint,  which  can,  of  course,  be  made  in 
any  color.  The  paint  should  be  mixed  thick, 
with  plenty  of  japan  drier,  or  boiled  oil,  so  that 
it  may  harden  quickly,  and  may  be  put  on  in 
two,  three,  or  more  coats,  according  to  circum- 
stances ;  and  it  is  desirable  to  varnish  it  after- 
ward, for  protection  against  scratches.  With 
dark  madder  brown,  or  "  antique  blue  "  paint,  or 
other  deep,  rich  colors,  harmonizing  with  the 
rest  of  the  room,  beautiful  effects  can  be  ob- 
tained. Our  ancestors  were  in  the  habit  of 
painting  the  floors  of  their  rooms  white,  and 
decorating  them  with  bluish  veins,  suggesting, 
although  not  usually  with  deceptive  accuracy,  a 
marble  pavement ;  or,  for  variety,  they  imitated 
granite  slabs  with  slate-colored  paint,  sprinkled 
with  little  drops  of  white  ;  and  it  may  be  reserved 
for  some  clever  householder  of  the  present  day  to 
invent  painted  and  varnished  floor-borders,  deco- 
rated with  pink  and  white  pond-lilies,  for  exam- 
ple, floating  with  their  green  leaves  on  a  dark  blue 
ground,  with  brown  reflections  here  and  there, 
suggesting  the  mud  beneath  ;  or,  perhaps,  clusters 
of  daisies,  on  a  ground  of  green,  in  the  William 
Morris  manner,  which  would  be  charming. 

Much    more    satisfactory,  where    it    can    be  Hard-wood 
afforded,  than  a  floor  of  spruce  or  pine,  however  floor' 


216  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

well  stained  or  painted,  is  one  of  hard  wood. 
The  cheapest  flooring  wood  which  has  any  pre- 
tensions to  be  called  hard  is  North  Carolina  pine, 
which,  unless  specially  selected,  costs  little  more 
than  spruce.  The  boards,  if  of  ordinary  stock, 
show  a  large  proportion  of  sap-wood,  which 
injures  their  appearance,  and  they  are  hard 
enough  to  turn  the  points  of  tacks,  so  that  they 
do  not  receive  carpeting  well ;  but,  as  a  compen- 
sation for  this,  they  can  be  kept  at  a  tolerable 
polish  with  wax ;  and,  in  a  new  house,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  select  the  boards,  so  that  those  in  the 
best  rooms  will  show  no  streaks  of  white  sap. 
Georgia  Georgia  pine  ranks  next  above  North  Carolina 
pine,  both  in  hardness  and  cost.  It  takes  a 
good  polish  with  wax ;  but,  for  flooring,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  "  rift "  boards,  the  surface  of 
which  is  cut  nearly  normal  to  the  annual  rings 
of  the  log ;  and  these  rings,  being  cut  across,  show 
a  grain  of  fine  parallel  lines,  which  is  rather 
monotonous.  A  much  handsomer  grain  is  found 
in  the  "  slashed "  boards,  which  are  cut  nearly 
tangent  to  the  annual  rings,  and  show  broad 
mottlings ;  but  these  mottlings  are  composed 
mainly  of  brittle  rosin,  which  soon  crushes  under 
wear,  setting  free  great  slivers  of  wood,  and  ruin- 
ing the  appearance  of  the  floor.  Similar  mot- 
tlings are  seen  in  boards  of  North  Carolina  pine, 
but  the  annual  rings  are  much  more  adherent  in 
this  timber  than  in  Georgia  pine,  so  that  it  is 
little  disposed  to  splinter. 


THE    CARE   OF   WOODWORK  217 

Above  Georgia  pine,  both  in  expense  and  hard- 
ness, come  maple,  ash,  birch,  and  oak :  and,  be- 
yond these,  cherry,  mahogany,  black  walnut,  and 
other  so-called  "  fancy  "  woods.  Of  the  ordinary 
hard  deciduous  timbers,  maple  is  the  cheapest,  Maple, 
and  makes  a  very  tough,  durable  floor,  admirable 
for  hard  wear ;  but  the  boards,  in  seasoning, 
acquire  a  bluish  tinge  at  the  ends,  which  injures 
the  appearance  of  a  floor  laid  with  them  ;  so 
that  maple  is  not  often  used  for  entire  floors  in 
private  houses,  except  for  small  rooms,  where 
selected  pieces,  especially  if  they  can  be  chosen 
with  a  "  bird's-eye  "  or  curly  grain,  give  a  very 
pretty  effect.  With  maple,  as  with  all  other 
deciduous  woods,  the  boards  must  be  narrow 
to  give  a  good  effect,  as  they  shrink  much 
more  than  coniferous  timber.  Two  and  one-half 
inches  is  a  common  width  for  maple  flooring, 
and  two  inches  is  still  better.  For  parquetrj^  or 
inlaid  floors,  maple  is  much  used,  on  account  of 
its  whiteness,  which  serves  to  mark  the  pattern 
of  the  inlay. 

Ash  is  little  more  costly  than  ordinary  maple,  Ash* 
but  it  is  unsuited  to  the  severe  wear  of  a  floor  in 
a  room  which  is  much  used,  as  the  annual  rings 
do  not  adhere  together  strongly,  and  the  floor 
soon  begins  to  "  sliver  up "  in  the  places  where 
the  most  wear  comes.  Except  for  this,  ash 
would  be  a  hard  and  handsome  flooring  material, 
and  it  may  stilL  be  used  successfully,  in  place  of 
the  more  expensive  oak,  for  stairs  and  floors  not 


218  THE    CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

Birch.  exposed  to  much  traffic.     Birch  is  a  very  hard 

material,  containing  a  large  proportion  of  white 
sap-wood,  enclosing  heart-wood  of  a  beautiful 
pinkish  brown.  It  has  only  a  limited  market, 
but  hardly  any  floor  can  be  handsomer  than  one 
of  birch  heart-wood,  in  two-inch  strips,  well 
polished. 

Oak.  The  best  of  all   ordinary    flooring   woods    is, 

however,  oak,  which  is  hard,  of  a  varied  and 
agreeable  grain,  and  so  tough  that  it  is  not  dis- 
posed to  sliver,  even  when  "  slashed,"  or  cut  tan- 
gent to  the  annual  rings.  It  is,  however,  liable 
to  knots,  and  streaks  of  white  sap,  so  that  a  con- 
siderable percentage  of  the  stock  must  be  wasted 
in  laying  a  good  floor. 

Whatever  wood  is  used  should  be  in  boards 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  At  certain  times  it 
has  been  common  to  lay  "wood  carpets,"  consist- 
ing of  slips  of  various  woods,  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  thick,  glued  on  cotton  cloth,  over  spruce 
floors :  but  unless  the  strips  are  nailed  through 
from  the  face,  which  covers  the  floor  with  nail- 
holes,  they  soon  became  loose.  Parquetry  floors 
are  made,  in  many  cases,  with  pieces  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  thick,  glued  and  fastened  to  a  backing 
of  half-inch  pine  ;  and,  when  well  made,  they  are 
durable. 

For  giving  to  a  floor  of  any  hard  wood  the 
polish  which  forms  one  of  its  chief  attractions, 
wax  only  should  be  used.  Nearly  all  painters 
have  a  mania  for  varnishing  hard-wood  floors, 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  219 

some  from  habit,  and  some  from  the  facility 
with  which  a  polish  can  be  obtained  ;  and  will 
argue  by  the  hour  in  favor  of  the  practice ;  but 
the  householder  who  looks  beyond  immediate 
effect,  and  desires  to  see  his  floors  clean  and 
shining  when  his  neighbor's  varnished  floors  are 
hopelessly  black  in  the  corners,  and  diversified  in 
the  middle  with  worn  spots  of  white,  which  no 
patching  or  staining  can  conceal,  should  firmly 
refuse  to  allow  varnish  of  any  kind  to  touch  a 
hard-wood  floor ;  and  he  may  take  satisfaction  in 
knowing  that  the  very  best  painters  will  support 
him  in  this  refusal.  The  oak  floors  in  the  French 
palaces  have  never  had  anything  but  wax  on  them, 
and  although  the  feet  of  visitors  have,  in  two 
hundred  years,  worn  the  boards  nearly  through, 
they  are  as  bright  as  when  they  were  first  laid  ; 
while  a  varnished  floor  is  rarely  presentable  after 
ten  years'  service,  and  can  be  brought  back  to 
tolerable  condition  only  by  costly  scraping  and 
refinishing. 

French  floors  are  polished  with  simple  beeswax ;  Waxing 
but  the  mixture  of  beeswax,  paraifine,  and  turpen- 
tine sold  in  cans  under  the  name  of  "  Globe  Wax," 
"  Butcher's  Polish,"  and  various  other  appellations 
is  more  easily  applied,  and  is  less  sticky  than  pure 
beeswax,  so  that  it  needs  less  frequent  rubbing  to 
keep  it  bright.  Before  the  wax  is  applied  on  a  new 
floor,  the  floor  should  receive  two  coats  of  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  linseed  oil  and  turpentine, 
with  enough  japan  to  make  it  harden  over  night. 


220  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

Both  the  oil  and  turpentine  should  be  pure,  as 
the  fish-oil  and  benzine  often  sold  for  them  will 
leave  the  floor  sticky.  The  purpose  of  applying 
the  oil  is  to  bring  out  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and 
prevent  subsequent  grease  spots  from  showing  on 
the  floor,  as  they  would  if  the  wax  were  applied 
without  previous  oiling.  The  mixture  of  turpen- 
tine causes  the  oil  to  soak  much  more  deeply  into 
the  wood,  and,  by  two  coats,  the  grain,  with  the 
aid  of  the  japan  drier,  is  to  a  certain  extent  filled 
and  hardened,  so  as  to  take  a  better  polish  with 
the  wax.  After  the  wax  has  been  applied,  no 
oil  should  ever  be  used  on  a  floor.  The  wax 
will  prevent  it  from  being  absorbed,  and  it  will 
simply  form  a  sticky  film  over  the  surface,  which 
will  soon  collect  dust  and  turn  black. 

After  the  oil  and  turpentine  treatment,  and 
before  waxing,  it  is  common  to  fill  the  pores  of 
oak  and  ash  floors  with  a  paste  "  filler,"  well 
rubbed  in.  As  this  fills  up  the  pores  to  the  line 
of  the  surrounding  tissues,  a  more  uniform  polish 
can  be  obtained  subsequently  ;  but,  unless  a  very 
high  finish  is  desired,  the  filler  may  be  dispensed 
with,  and  the  floor  will  be  less  slippery  if  it  is 
left  out.  Most  painters,  after  filling  an  oak  floor, 
insist  that  it  is  necessary  to  go  over  it  with  "  a 
thin  coat  of  shellac,"  to  "  prevent  the  filler  from 
coming  out  "  ;  but  the  application  of  shellac,  like 
that  of  any  other  varnish,  will  cause  the  floor  to 
wear  into  spots,  and  it  is  much  better  to  let  the 
filler  come  out,  if  it  chooses,  than  to  keep  it  in  by 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  221 

such  means.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  filler 
rarely  shows  any  disposition  to  leave  its  place  in 
the  floor  after  a  coating  of  wax  has  been  put  over 
it. 

After  the  floor  has  been  filled,  if  a  filler  is 
used,  and  when  the  filler  and  the  preceding  coats 
of  oil  are  perfectly  dry  and  hard,  the  w^axing  is 
begun  by  covering  the  whole  floor  with  the  wax 
and  turpentine  paste,  put  on,  not  too  thickly, 
with  a  rag,  and  leaving  it  over  night  to  harden. 
The  next  morning  the  rag  is  again  applied  with 
some  fresh  paste,  the  turpentine  in  which  dis- 
solves the  surplus  wax  left  on  the  floor  the  day 
before,  and  renders  the  coating  uniform.  After 
drying  for  an  hour  or  so,  the  whole  is  polished 
with  a  weighted  brush,  rubbing  with  the  grain 
of  the  wood,  and  finished  with  a  woollen  rag, 
applied  either  by  hand,  or  by  tying  the  rag  under 
the  weighted  brush.  If  the  japan  is  omitted 
from  the  oil  and  turpentine,  or  inferior  filler  is 
used,  so  that  the  wood  is  greasy,  it  is  useless  to 
apply  the  wax,  as  the  latter  will  unite  with  the 
oil,  and  cannot  be  polished ;  while  it  will  pre- 
vent further  drying  of  the  oil,  by  excluding  the 
air,  so  that  the  wax  finishing  must  be  left  until 
the  previous  applications  are  well  hardened. 

After  once  waxing,  the  floor  will  need  no  fur- 
ther attention  for  a  year,  except  an  occasional 
rubbing  with  the  weighted  brush  to  keep  up  the 
polish.  At  the  end  of  that  time  a  thin  coat  of 
wax  may  be  applied,  particularly  over  the  places 


222  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

where  the  most  wear  comes,  in  the  same  way  in 
which  the  first  application  was  made,  by  leaving 
it  over  night  to  harden,  and  rubbing  it  down  the 
next  morning  with  a  rag  dipped  in  a  little  fresh 
paste,  arid  annually  thereafter  the  operation  may 
be  repeated ;  but,  in  the  intervals,  no  fresh  wax 
should  be  put  on,  the  weighted  brush  or  a  warm 
woollen  rag,  if  the  wax  has  been  whitened  by 
water,  being  depended  upon  to  keep  up  the  pol- 
ish. The  footmen  in  French  houses  polish  the 
oak  floors  every  morning  by  skating  over  them 
with  a  brush  tied  to  one  foot ;  but,  with  the 
paraffine  mixture  commonly  used  in  this  country, 
so  much  labor  is  unnecessary,  a  weekly,  or  even 
monthly,  brushing  being  sufficient. 

Oak  stairs,  and  ash  floors  and  stairs,  should  be 
treated  in  the  same  way  as  oak  floors,  first  oiling 
with  linseed  oil,  turpentine  and  japan,  then  fill- 
ing, if  a  high  polish  is  desired,  and  finishing  with 
wax.  So  treated,  they  will  retain  their  beauty 
indefinitely.  Floors  of  maple,  birch,  Georgia 
and  North  Carolina  pine,  and  the  fancy  woods 
are  similarly  finished,  but  most  of  them  are  so 
close  grained  that  no  filler  can  be  used  on  them, 
as  there  are  no  pores  to  fill,  and  for  the  same 
reason  they  take  much  less  wax  than  an  oak  or 
ash  floor,  but  require,  as  a  rule,  more  rubbing  to 
produce  a  good  effect. 

Kitchen  Kitchen  floors,  which  are  usually  of  Georgia 

floors.          pine,  are  less  suited  for  waxing,  for  the  reason 

that  much  water  falls  on  them,  and  makes  the 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  223 

wax  white  and  dull.  The  best  treatment  of  all 
would  be  to  saturate  the  floor  with  paraffine,  by 
melting  it  in  with  hot  irons,  as  is  often  done  in 
hospitals.  Such  a  floor  would  never  absorb 
water  or  dirt  of  any  kind,  but  it  would  be  ex- 
pensive ;  and  most  people,  forgetting  the  hours 
that  their  servants  spend  in  washing  floors  which, 
with  proper  treatment,  would  never  need  any- 
thing more  than  wiping  with  a  damp  cloth, 
choose  the  cheapest  finish  that  they  can  find. 
Usually,  a  coat  or  two  of  linseed  oil  is  put  on ; 
and,  as  the  mucilaginous  gum  contained  in  linseed 
oil  remains  soft  in  a  warm,  moist  atmosphere, 
the  dust  and  dirt  of  the  kitchen  stick  to  it,  form- 
ing a  black  coating  which  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  wash  off.  A  thick  paraffine  oil  is  sometimes 
used  instead  of  linseed  oil,  but  with  little  better 
results.  Some  housekeepers  wash  their  kitchen 
floors  with  milk,  which  is  said,  by  repeated  wash- 
ings, to  give  a  shining  surface,  which  is  not 
sticky ;  but  there  are  sanitary  objections,  to  say 
nothing  of  entomological  ones,  to  filling  the  seams 
between  the  boards  with  dried  and  decaying 
milk.  Probably  wax  in  some  form,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  provision-man's  wet 
boots  make  tracks  over  it,  is  the  best  application. 
In  order  to  fill  the  pores  and  crevices  of  the  wood 
as  thoroughly  as  possible  with  it,  the  ordinary  wax- 
ing may  be  supplemented  by  sprinkling  the  floor 
with  powdered  paraffine,  scraped  off  a  paraffine 
candle,  or  from  the  blocks  sold  for  the  purpose  at 


224  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

the  large  grocery  stores.  These  paraffine  scrap- 
ings are  much  used  for  scattering  over  ball-room 
floors,  the  feet  of  the  dancers  soon  forcing  them 
into  the  pores  of  the  wood ;  and  the  ordinary 
traffic  of  the  kitchen,  aided,  perhaps,  by  a  hot 
iron  in  the  corners,  would  in  time  give  something 
of  the  hard,  impervious  surface,  which,  if  it  is 
desirable  in  a  ball-room,  is  even  more  so  in  a 
kitchen. 

When  an  oiled  kitchen  floor  has  become  so 
black  that  the  most  persevering  maid  gives  up  the 
attempt  to  make  it  presentable,  the  usual  course 
is  to  paint  it.  As  even  the  best  paint  shows 
marks  from  boot  heels  and  furniture,  such  a  sur- 
face is  less  desirable  than  one  made  by  thorough 
treatment  with  paraffine ;  but  sometimes  nothing 
better  can  be  had.  In  such  cases  paint  mixed 
thick,  with  plenty  of  japan  drier,  should  be  used, 
so  as  to  get  the  floor  well  covered  with  one  coat, 
and  insure  its  drying  within  a  reasonable  time ; 
and  it  is  judicious  to  employ  a  single  pigment, 
such  as  French  ochre,  raw  sienna,  burnt  sienna, 
or  raw  umber,  without  mixing  it  with  any  other 
color,  so  that  the  worn  spots  which  will  appear 
later  in  front  of  the  sink,  and  around  the  doors, 
can  be  retouched  with  the  contents  of  another 
can  of  the  same  color,  without  recourse  to  the 
tedious,  and  generally  unsuccessful,  operation  of 
mixing  new  color  to  match  the  old. 

After  a  floor  of  any  kind  has  once  been  properly 
waxed,  it  often  happens  that  housekeepers,  or 


THE   CARE  OF    WOODWORK  225 

over-zealous  servants,  in  their  anxiety  to  keep  it 
in  a  state  of  brilliant  polish,  or  to  restore  it  when 
its  original  lustre  has  become  dimmed,  put  on  too 
much  wax,  which  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  floor, 
and  collects  dust,  giving  the  wood  a  gummy,  black- 
ish look.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  take  off  the 
surplus  wax  with  a  little  turpentine.  Some  of 
the  manufacturers  of  floor  waxes,  knowing  the 
ways  of  housekeepers,  put  up  and  sell,  under  the 
name  of  "  Reviver,"  or  something  of  the  kind,  a 
mixture  of  a  small  amount  of  wax  or  paraffine 
with  a  large  proportion  of  turpentine.  This  com- 
pound, rubbed  with  a  rag  over  a  floor  suffering 
from  too  mucli  wax,  simply  dissolves  and  removes 
the  blackened  surplus,  revealing  the  floor  under- 
neath in  its  pristine  brightness. 

All  floors  are  more  or  less  subject  to  staining  Removing 
or  discoloration  from  various  causes.     The  worst  1 

discoloration  is  that  which  comes  from  the  black- 
ening of  varnish  or  oil  on  the  surface,  and  it  can 
only  be  remedied  by  scraping  the  coating  off,  to 
the  bare  wood.  This  operation,  when  carried  out 
with  steel  scrapers,  is  tedious  and  expensive,  as 
the  particles  of  sand  and  grit  embedded,  with 
other  dust,  in  the  sticky  varnish,  quickly  destroy 
the  edge  of  the  scraper ;  but  either  this  or,  in  the 
worst  cases,  planing,  is  necessary,  as  the  acids, 
alkalies,  or  trade  nostrums  used  by  painters  for 
removing  old  varnish  leave  the  wood  in  an  incur- 
ably uneven,  chalky  condition.  After  the  floor 
has  been  thoroughly  scraped,  it  should  be  treated 


* 

226  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

with  the  oil  and  turpentine  and  japan  mixture, 
and  waxed. 

Grease  Where  the  preliminary  oiling  of  a  waxed  floor 

has  been  omitted,  as  is  often  the  case  where  the 
proper  method  is  not  understood,  the  floor  will 
show  grease  spots,  particularly  in  dining  rooms, 
where  greasy  crumbs  will  inevitably  fall  upon  it. 
The  grease  can  be  tolerably  well  removed  with 
turpentine,  and  the  spots,  if  left  to  themselves, 
will  gradually  be  absorbed  and  disappear ;  but 
the  best  way  to  cure  them,  as  well  as  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  others,  is  to  wash  off  the  wax 
with  turpentine,  oil  with  linseed  oil,  turpentine, 
and  drier,  and  refinish  with  wax. 

Oak  floors  are  subject  to  a  sort  of  staining 
which  often  gives  housekeepers  much  trouble,  at 
the  same  time  that  it  affords  an  interesting  study 
in  chemistry.  Every  one  knows  that  ink  is 
made  by  mixing  gallic  or  tannic  acid  with  a  solu- 
tion of  iron,  the  two  forming  a  deep  black  com- 
pound. As  oak  wood  contains  tannic  acid,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  wet  it  with  a  solution  of  iron 
to  produce  a  deposit  of  ink  in  the  fibres  of  the 
wood;  and  the  necessary  iron  solution  is  fur- 
nished by  a  wet  umbrella,  or  cane,  or  by  the 
wet  tires  of  a  baby-carriage,  or  an  old  tin  pail, 
or  a  multitude  of  other  objects,  any  of  which,  if 
left  standing  on  the  floor,  will  leave  a  black 
mark.  Fortunately,  this  inky  mark  is  very 
easily  removed  with  oxalic  acid,  which  is  the 
general  remedy  for  all  varieties  of  iron  stains. 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  227 

It  is  only  necessary  to  dissolve  a  small  quantity 
of  the  oxalic  acid  crystals  in  a  cup,  keeping 
them  carefully  out  of  the  way  of  children,  as 
oxalic  acid  is  a  dangerous  poison,  and  make  a 
little  puddle  of  the  solution  over  the  black  spot 
in  the  floor,  leaving  it,  if  possible,  over  night. 
In  the  morning  the  stain  will  have  disappeared, 
and  nothing  more  is  required  but  to  wash  off  the 
oxalic  acid,  and,  after  the  spot  is  thoroughly 
dry,  polish  with  a  little  wax.  Stains  of  real 
ink  can  be  removed  in  the  same  way,  provided 
the  ink  is  of  the  standard  kind,  made  with  gallic 
acid  and  iron ;  but  purple  ink,  or  any  other 
variety  made  with  aniline  colors,  will  resist 
oxalic  acid.  Some  aniline  colors,  but  not  all, 
can  be  removed  with  saleratus,  or  washing  soda, 
and  the  same  substance  will  take  out  stains  of 
the  ordinary  laundry  bluing,  which  is  made 
with  Prussian  blue.  Strong  alkalies,  such  as 
potash  or  caustic  soda,  or  even  strong  ammonia, 
should  not  be  applied  to  oak,  as  they  will  stain 
it  brown ;  and  wet  lime,  or  mortar,  will  also 
make  a  deep  and  indelible  brown  stain,  which 
can  only  be  removed  by  planing.  Fortunately, 
with  a  floor  finished  in  wax,  mortar  stains,  spots 
burned  by  sparks,  or  other  stains  which  cannot 
be  removed  by  easier  means,  can  be  planed  out, 
and  the  place  waxed  and  rubbed,  without  dis- 
figuring the  floor.  Although  the  fresh  surface  of 
the  wood  may  at  first  be  paler  than  that  around 
it,  exposure  to  air  and  light  will  soon  bring  it  to 


228  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

the  same  shade ;  and  it  is  better  to  wait  for  them 
to  do  their  work  than  to  apply  a  stain,  which 
does  not  penetrate  far  into  hard  wood,  and  soon 
wears  off,  leaving  unpleasant-looking  spots. 
Washing  As  the  coating  of  wax  on  a  floor  is  dulled  and 

floorsW°C  whitened  by  the  contact  of  water,  while  good 
varnish  is  not  so  affected,  the  advocates  of 
varnished  floors  often  claim  superiority  for  their 
favorite  finish  on  that  account.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  however,  most  varnish  is  more  injured  than 
wax  by  water,  the  surface  being  rendered  tem- 
porarily soft  and  sticky,  while  the  whitened 
surface  of  the  wax,  after  the  water  has  dried 
away,  needs  nothing  but  rubbing  with  a  warm 
woollen  cloth,  or  a  weighted  brush,  to  bring  it 
back  to  its  former  polish.  In  general,  however, 
the  washing  of  hard-wood  floors  of  all  kinds 
should  be  avoided.  With  Georgia  pine  floors 
the  wrater  hastens  the  deterioration  and  splinter- 
ing up  of  the  boards,  and,  with  any  wood,  the 
accumulation  of  water  and  dust  in  the  seams 
between  the  boards  causes  discoloration,  and 
promotes  the  rotting  of  the  floor.  The  latter  is 
often  a  serious  matter  in  kitchens,  where  decay, 
once  started,  advances  rapidly  in  the  warm, 
moist  atmosphere ;  and  the  oil-cloth,  which  is 
frequently  laid  dowrn  to  conceal  the  first  stages 
of  the  malady,  soon  completes  the  ruin  of  the 
floor,  by  excluding  the  air. 

Although  it   may  sometimes  be  necessary  to 
wash  the  kitchen  floor,  the  other  hard-wood  floors 


THE  CARE   OF    WOODWORK  229 

of  a  house  will  rarely,  if  ever,  need  anything 
more  than  an  occasional  wiping  with  a  cloth, 
dampened  sufficiently,  if  necessary,  to  take  off 
mud,  or  other  adherent  matters,  but  not  so  much 
that  water  will  escape  from  it  into  the  seams. 

Standing  finish  of  hard  wood,  although  it  may,  standing 
with  beautiful  effect,  be  treated  with  wax  in  fimsht 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  a  floor,  is  usually 
varnished,  and  such  treatment  is  much  less  objec- 
tionable for  this  purpose,  as  the  varnish  does  not 
tend  to  wear  off  in  spots,  or  to  accumulate  dirt, 
as  it  does  on  a  floor.  It  is,  however,  very  neces- 
sary that  the  varnish  should  be  good,  as  a  cheap 
varnish  will  show  white  spots  where  it  is  bruised, 
and  soon  becomes  shabby,  where  a  good  varnish 
will  retain  its  smooth  appearance  indefinitely. 
Shellac  varnish,  put  on  in  four,  five,  or  six  coats, 
and  rubbed  down  with  emery-cloth  and  oil,  or,  if 
a  higher  polish  is  desired,  with  pumice-stone  and 
water,  forms  the  best  application  of  the  kind  for 
doors  and  standing  finish ;  but  it  is  expensive, 
and  two  coats  of  some  good,  hard  interior  var- 
nish, rubbed  down  in  the  same  way,  form  a  tol- 
erable substitute.  Whatever  varnish  is  used 
should  be  carefully  treated,  and  the  coating 
renewed  before  it  is  too  late,  as  worn  spots  in 
varnished  work  cannot  be  retouched  successfully. 
With  good  varnish,  a  damp  cloth  may  be  used  to 
remove  spots  on  the  surface,  but  it  should  not  be 
too  wet,  and  water  should  not  be  allowed  to  get 
into  seams  or  nail  holes.  If  the  varnish  is  in- 


230  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

ferior,  even  a  damp  cloth  will,  after  a  little  time, 
cause  white  or  yellow  spots  to  appear  on  the 
surface.  These  are  caused  by  the  cracking  and 
disintegration  of  the  varnish ;  and,  while  they 
can  be  to  a  certain  extent  concealed  by  rubbing 
them  with  "Scotch  Polish,"  used  and  sold  for 
the  purpose  by  furniture  dealers,  the  disinte- 
grated varnish  soon  crumbles  off,  leaving  the 
bare  wood. 

When  a  householder  finds  himself  obliged  to 
deal  with  varnished  woodwork  which  has  been 
neglected,  and  is  unwilling  to  go  to  the  great  ex- 
pense of  having  it  scraped  down  to  the  bare 
wood,  and  refinished,  he  will  find  a  can  of  floor 
wax  an  invaluable  resource.  Unless  the  spots 
where  the  varnish  is  worn  through  have  become 
stained,  by  atmospheric  action  or  otherwise,  a 
careful  application  of  the  wax,  and  subsequent 
rubbing,  will  bring  them  to  a  close  approxima- 
tion to  the  appearance  of  the  surrounding  varnish ; 
and  the  approximation  will  be  still  closer,  and 
the  appearance  of  the  entire  varnished  surface 
improved,  by  treating  the  whole  with  the  wax, 
which  will  not  only  give  a  uniform  lustre,  but 
protect  from  wear  such  varnish  as  remains.  With 
good  floor  wax  there  is  no  danger,  as  is  often 
pretended,  that  the  surface  will  be  made  sticky. 
Even  the  hand-rail  of  a  staircase  may  be  finished 
in  wax,  without  fear  of  trouble  from  this  source. 
Painted  Where  the  interior  woodwork  is  painted,  in- 

finish.  stead  of  being  finished  in  the  natural  color,  the 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  231 

task  of  the  householder  in  keeping  it  in  present- 
able condition  will  be  in  a  certain  degree  light- 
ened ;  for,  if  painted  woodwork  shows  marks 
more  conspicuously  than  that  treated  with  var- 
nish, its  covering  is  more  easily  renewed.  Our 
ancestors  had  a  way  of  painting  their  woodwork 
with  a  white,  glossy  paint,  which  was  very  hard, 
and  could  be  washed  with  a  wet  cloth  without 
injury ;  but,  according  to  the  modern  painters, 
this  art  is  lost,  and  those  persons  who  desire 
washable  white  paint  in  their  houses  must  incur 
a  great  expense  in  having  the  woodwork  treated 
with  "  enamel,"  in  five  or  six  coats.  It  is  true 
that  the  modern  enamel,  if  well  put  on,  so  that 
it  does  not  blister,  or  stick  to  persons  and  objects 
coming  in  contact  with  it,  as  is  not  unfrequently 
the  case,  is  more  beautiful  than  the  ancient  paint, 
being  smoother,  and  less  subject  to  netlike 
cracks ;  but  it  is  not  every  householder  who  can 
afford  it,  and  it  would  be  very  desirable  to  revive 
the  colonial  practice.  The  colonial  paint  was 
mixed  with  boiled  oil,  which  gives  a  glossy,  var- 
nish-like surface,  and  was,  as  we  know,  highly 
esteemed  by  our  forefathers ;  but  the  real  boiled 
linseed  oil  is  said  to  be  unknown  to  the  trade 
now,  its  place  being  taken  by  a  mixture,  sold 
under  the  same  name,  but  of  different  proper- 
ties. 

Until  the  glossy  old  paint  is  reinvented,  those 
householders  who  cannot  indulge  themselves  in 
the  luxurv  of  enamel  must  be  content  with  the 


232  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

ordinary  paint,  either  "  flatted,"  or  in  "  oil  fin- 
ish,"  or  "  china  gloss."  The  flatted  paint,  in 
which  the  last  coat  is  mixed  with  turpentine 
only,  has  a  dead  surface,  possessing  a  marvellous 
capacity  for  getting  marred  and  discolored.  The 
touch  of  a  finger  will  leave  on  such  paint  a  per- 
ceptible mark,  which  cannot  be  removed,  since 
flatted  paint  cannot  well  be  washed,  and  is  only 
to  be  cured  by  repainting.  "  Oil-finish  "  paint, 
in  which  the  last  coat  has,  or  should  have,  no 
turpentine,  has  a  smooth,  but,  in  these  days  of 
adulterated  oil,  not  a  glossy  surface,  which,  how- 
ever, can  be  washed  without  injury,  and  is  much 
less  subject  to  marking  than  a  flatted  coat.  In 
the  « china-gloss "  finish  the  last  coat  is  mixed 
with  varnish;  which  may  or  may  not  be  advan- 
tageous, according  to  the  character  of  the  var- 
nish. When  a  poor,  cheap  varnish  is  used  the 
paint  is  likely  to  be  sticky  in  damp  weather, 
and  to  turn  yellow  after  a  time ;  but,  with 
good  varnish,  a  china-gloss  finish  is  very  service- 
able, being  easily  washed,  and  so  hard  that  it  is 
not  readily  marked.  Some  painters,  instead  of 
putting  varnish  into  the  last  coat  of  paint,  var- 
nish the  work  after  painting ;  but  this  is  objec- 
tionable, as  the  varnish  is  apt  to  turn  yellow. 
Discoiora-  Most  housekeepers  who  have  woodwork 
paint!  painted  white  to  take  care  of  find  that  the 

paint  is  disposed  to  turn  yellow,  sometimes  as 
a  whole,  and  sometimes  in  streaks  and  spots. 
This  may  proceed  from  either  of  two  causes,  or 


THE    CARE    OF   WOODWORK  233 

from  both  combined.  Where  the  trouble  shows 
itself  in  streaks,  or  speckles,  or  in  large  rounded 
or  oval  spots,  it  is  generally  due  to  pitch  in  the 
wood.  Pine  wood,  which  is  generally  used  for 
the  best  painted  work,  on  account  of  its  freedom 
from  warping  and  shrinkage,  contains  a  resinous 
sap,  which  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  knots, 
but  occurs  also  in  streaks,  and  in  small  spots, 
scattered  over  a  considerable  surface.  In  what- 
ever form  it  may  be  present,  it  will  penetrate,  in 
the  course  of  a  few  months,  through  any  number 
of  coats  of  paint,  producing  yellow  streaks  and 
spots,  unless  it  is  covered  with  impervious  var- 
nish. Knots  are  often  so  full  of  pitch  that  even 
varnish  will  not  keep  it  in,  and  the  knot  must  be 
"  killed  "  with  lime,  or  cut  out,  and  a  new  piece 
inserted,  before  varnishing ;  but  ordinary  streaks 
and  specks  can  be  satisfactorily  treated  by  cover- 
ing them  with  a  thick  coat  of  shellac  varnish. 
As  shellac  varnish  is  expensive,  most  painters 
use  as  little  of  it  as  they  can  for  covering  the 
"  knots,  sap,  and  pitchy  places "  usually  men- 
tioned in  the  architect's  specifications,  and,  in 
consequence,  omit  spots  which  make  themselves 
visible  later ;  so  that  the  safest  way  is  to  require 
the  pine  woodwork  to  be  varnished  all  over  with 
shellac,  to  make  sure  that  all  the  pitch  is  covered. 
Where  this  is  demanded  by  the  contract,  it  is 
usual  to  give  the  wood  a  light  coat  of  paint,  as  a 
priming,  before  putting  on  the  shellac.  In  this 
way  the  varnish  can  be  put  on  more  evenly,  and 


234 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


White  lead. 


Outside 
painting. 


its  effect  in  preventing  the  pitch  from  coming 
through  is  the  same.  Where  no  attempt,  or 
an  unsuccessful  one,  has  been  made  to  cover 
the  knots  and  pitch  at  the  first  painting  of  the 
house,  and  the  householder,  displeased  with  the 
yellow  and  brown  streaks  in  the  woodwork,  has 
made  up  his  mind  to  have  the  whole  repainted, 
it  is  advantageous,  before  doing  so,  to  varnish  the 
whole  of  the  old  work  with  shellac.  If  this  is 
done,  the  paint  will  remain  unstained  by  pitch 
for  an  indefinite  period ;  but,  if  no  varnish  is  put 
on,  the  stains  will  make  their  way  through  the 
new  paint  in  a  year  or  two,  and  the  painter 
must  be  called  in  again. 

Stains  of  pitch  or  sap  penetrate  through  either 
lead  or  zinc  paint,  but  white  lead,  which  is  the 
pigment  most  commonly  used,  has  the  property 
of  turning  yellow  in  a  dark  room,  whether  there 
is  anything  to  stain  it  or  not.  Zinc  white  is  not 
subject  to  this  change,  and  is  therefore  preferable, 
if  it  can  be  obtained  pure,  for  interior  work. 
Where  woodwork  painted  with  white  lead  has 
once  turned  yellow,  nothing  but  repainting  will 
restore  it ;  but  the  yellowing  can  be  delayed  by 
keeping  the  rooms  as  light  and  sunny  as  possi- 
ble. Tinted  paint,  which  usually  has  a  basis  of 
white  lead  or  zinc,  behaves  in  the  same  manner 
as  white,  but  the  stains  are,  of  course,  less  con- 
spicuous. 

For  outside  painting,  white  lead  is  the  most 
desirable  of  all  pigments.  Being  exposed  to  the 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  235 

light,  it  does  not  turn  yellow,  as  it  is  likely  to 
do  inside  the  house,  and  it  has  the  invaluable 
property  of  becoming  "  chalky  "  with  age,  and 
of  clinging  to  the  wood  long  after  the  oil  with 
which  it  was  originally  mixed  has  been  destroyed 
by  the  weather.  The  venders  of  inferior  paints 
usually  affect  great  scorn  for  old  and  chalky 
white  lead,  and  often,  if  an  opportunity  offers  it- 
self, rub  their  hands  over  a  bit  of  old  white  lead 
paint,  and  show,  reproachfully,  the  white  dust 
which  it  leaves  on  the  skin  ;  but,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  nearly  any  other  pigment  would  have  blis- 
tered off,  leaving  the  wood  bare,  years  before  the 
white  lead  began  to  acquire  a  chalky  character, 
the  chalkiness  of  white  lead  being  simply  the 
manifestation  of  that  persistent  adherence  to 
wood  which  is  its  most  valuable  quality.  Yel- 
low ochre,  or  "  French  ochre,"  as  it  is  called  at 
the  paint  shops,  also  clings  tenaciously  to  wood, 
but  it  has,  when  mixed  with  modern  linseed  oil, 
a  propensity  for  "  mildewing,"  or  turning  black, 
where  exposed  to  rain,  which  deprives  it  of  much 
of  its  value  for  exterior  painting. 

Although  white  lead  is  thus  the  best  pigment  Aduitera- 
known  for  outside  use,  it  is  necessary,  in  order 
to  take  advantage  of  its  valuable  qualities,  to  get 
it  pure ;  and  this  is  not  always  an  easy  matter. 
Enormous  quantities  of  chalk,  baryta,  and  zinc 
are  sold  as  white  lead,  with,  and  even  without, 
an  admixture  of  genuine  lead.  Two  or  three 
brands  of  paint,  at  least,  are  to  be  found  in  the 


236  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

market,  in  kegs,  with  the  stencilled  or  printed 
inscription,  "  Warranted  Strictly  Pure  White 
Lead,"  which  do  not  contain  even  a  trace  of 
white  lead  ;  and  many  other  brands  contain  little 
except  chalk  and  baryta,  with  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  zinc.  The  safest  way  for  the  house- 
holder, who  has  not  at  hand  the  materials  for 
making  a  chemical  test  for  pure  white  lead,  is  to 
buy  the  lead  himself,  and  see  that  every  keg  is 
branded  with  the  name  of  the  National  Lead 
Company.  This  company,  although  it  ranks 
among  the  trusts,  is  entitled  to  the  credit  of  hav- 
ing held  out  firmly  against  adulteration,  and  any 
unbroken  package  of  white  lead  bearing  its  name 
is,  unless  its  practice  should  change,  filled  with 
white  lead  only,  pure  and  well  made.  As  there 
is,  naturally,  a  large  profit  in  buying  chalk  and 
baryta  at  a  few  dollars  a  ton,  and  selling  them 
as  white  lead  at  nine  or  ten  cents  a  pound,  the 
inexperienced  buyer  will  be  pursued  with  advice 
to  purchase  some  brand  «  less  expensive "  than 
those  controlled  by  the  National  Lead  Company, 
but  "  just  as  good  " ;  and,  if  he  persists  in  his 
preference,  will  probably  be  offered  something 
which,  he  will  be  told,  is  "  made  by  the  National 
Lead  Company,"  and  is  "just  the  same  as  their 
regular  brands,"  but,  for  some  mysterious  busi- 
ness reason,  is  sold  without  their  name.  The 
effect  of -a  prospective  profit  of  a  hundred  per 
cent  or  more  in  influencing  a  dealer's  eloquence 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  listening  to  these 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  237 

tales ;  and,  fortunately,  the  truth  of  them  is 
easily  tested,  if  necessary,  by  analysis  of  a 
sample  of  the  goods. 

Having  procured  some  genuine  white  lead,  the  Linseed  oil. 
householder  who  wishes  for  good  results  from  his 
painting  should  also  buy  linseed  oil.  The  lin- 
seed oil  of  commerce  is  almost  as  extensively 
adulterated  as  the  white  lead,  menhaden  oil 
being  sold  for  it  in  immense  quantities.  The 
easiest  way  of  detecting  serious  adulteration  is  to 
smell  a  sample  of  the  oil  offered  as  linseed,  first 
cold,  rubbing  it  in  the  hand,  and  then  by  spread- 
ing a  little  on  a  paper  or  rag,  and  burning  it. 
The  smell  of  pure  linseed  oil  is  so  characteristic 
that  any  considerable  adulteration  will  be  noticed ; 
and,  if  necessary,  a  sample  may  be  compared  with 
the  perfectly  pure  linseed  oil  put  up  in  small 
bottles  for  artists. 

The  cost  of  painters'  materials  is  so  small  in 
comparison  with  that  of  the  labor  of  putting  them 
on,  that  it  is  far  better  economy  to  use  oil  and  pig- 
ments, in  the  first  instance,  which  will  cling  to 
the  woodwork  for  half  a  generation,  than,  at  a 
little  smaller  expense,  to  employ  pigments  which 
will  wash  off  in  a  few  years,  or,  what  is  worse, 
blister  off,  leaving  patches  of  bare  wood,  which 
will  show  as  defects  through  subsequent  paint- 
ings. It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  a  house  is 
not  necessarily  white  because  it  is  painted  with 
white  lead,  as  the  lead  can  be  mixed  with 
other  Colors.  In  general,  however,  the  lighter 


238  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

the  color  with  which  a  house  is  painted,  the 
more  durable  the  paint  will  be,  and  the  more 
comfortable  the  house  itself  will  be,  both  in 
winter  and  summer,  white  paint  having  a  surpris- 
ing effect  in  reflecting  the  sun's  rays  in  hot 
weather,  and  keeping  the  house  behind  it  cool, 
as  well  as  in  preventing  radiation  of  the  heat 
of  the  house  in  winter. 

Ready-  Some    painters,    and    many    more    amateurs, 

!J|ri*etg  instead  of  going  to  the  trouble  of    mixing    the 

thick  pigment  from  the  can  or  keg  with  oil  to 
the  proper  consistency,  and  straining  'it,  to  re- 
move bits  of  "  paint  skin  "  and  other  solid  parti- 
cles, use  the  "  ready-mixed  "  paints,  which  are 
sold  by  dealers  in  all  colors,  and  of  all  qualities, 
Some  of  these  paints,  although  by  no  means  all 
that  claim  to  be,  are  made  with  good  white  lead, 
mixed  with  reasonably  pure  linseed  oil,  with  or 
without  drier,  according  to  whether  they  are 
intended  to  dry  quickly  or  not ;  bat  many  varie- 
ties, which  look  bright  and  shining  on  the  sample 
cards,  contain  water,  often  in  large  quantities, 
which  is  made  to  unite  with  the  oil  by  the  addi- 
tion of  silicate  of  soda,  or  some  other  strong  alkali, 
which  converts  the  oil  into  a  sort  of  soap,  soluble 
in  water.  Naturally,  paints  made  with  soap  do 
not  long  resist  the  weather ;  but,  as  the  business 
of  selling  water  at  the  price  of  oil  is  very  profit- 
able, they  are  extensively  used.  In  the  western 
country,  and  even  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the 
best  of  the  ready-mixed  paints  stand  well ;  but 


THE   CARE    OF   WOODWORK  239 

on  the  seacoast,  or  within  reach  of  the  salt  spray 
carried  by  storms  far  inland,  nothing  but  mate- 
rials known  to  be  perfectly  pure  should  be  used. 

For  the  outside  of  houses,  particularly  when  other 
shingled,  stains  of  different  sorts  are  much  used, 
and,  by  their  slight  variations  of  color,  give  to 
the  house  a  peculiarly  picturesque  and  homelike 
character.  They  are,  however,  rather  evanescent, 
and  do  little  to  protect  the  woodwork  against 
weathering.  What  is  called  "  natural  creosote," 
a  tarry  oil,  which  gives  a  pleasant  brown  color, 
is  probably  the  most  enduring  stain  of  the  kind, 
and  assists  in  preserving  the  wood  from  rotting. 
The  lighter  shades  of  creosote  are  mixed  with 
pigments  of  brighter  colors,  which  wash  off  more 
or  less  rapidly,  according  to  their  different  char- 
acters, the  creosote  having  little  power  of  binding 
them  to  the  wood.  Other  bright  stains  are  said 
to  be  mixed  with  petroleum  ;  and  there  are  stains 
in  the  market  which  claim  to  have  still  a  differ- 
ent vehicle,  the  nature  of  which  is  not  revealed. 
Where  stains  are  used,  it  is  best  to  paint  cornices, 
mouldings,  finish  around  windows  and  doors, 
clapboards,  corner-boards,  and,  in  general,  all 
planed  work,  with  three  coats  of  good  paint, 
which  will  preserve  it  from  warping  and  split- 
ting in  the  sun  ;  and  to  confine  the  stain  to  the 
shingles,  which  are  not  injured  by  sunshine. 
Sooner  or  later,  the  stain  will  be  washed  off  the 
lower  portion  of  the  shingles  by  the  rain,  but  it 
can  be  renewed  at  small  expense. 


240 


THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


Painting 
plastered 
walls. 


Varnish.  In  some  parts  of  Europe  outside  woodwork  is 

varnished,  using  a  "  spar  varnish,"  which  resists 
the  weather,  and  the  effect  is  very  pretty.  In 
our  trying  climate  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
keep  any  varnish  on  woodwork  directly  exposed 
to  rain  and  sun  ;  but  the  more  sheltered  portions 
of  a  house,  such  as  cornices,  and  the  finish  of 
piazzas,  porches,  and  balconies,  may  be,  and  occa- 
sionally are,  treated  with  varnish,  with  excellent 
results,  particularly  in  localities  remote  from  the 
seashore. 

So  far,  we  have  considered  only  the  painting 
of  the  woodwork  of  a  house,  but  the  plastered 
walls,  and  sometimes  the  ceilings,  need  paint  of 
some  kind,  or  other  protection,  not  only  to  im- 
prove their  appearance,  but  to  prevent  them  from 
showing  dirt  and  marks.  The  cheapest,  and,  in 
some  respects,  the  best  paints  for  this  purpose, 

size  colors,  are  those  in  which  glue  size  is  used  as  a  medium, 
the  glue  being  dissolved  in  hot  water.  Only 
enough  glue  is  used  to  form,  when  cold,  a  soft 
jelly,  which  is  easily  broken  up  by  stirring  into 
a  creamy  liquid,  with  which  pigments  in  dry 
powder  are  mixed.  Ground  whiting,  or  chalk, 
is  generally  used  for  white,  and  for  the  basis  of 
all  light  tints,  but  ground  plaster  of  Paris  is  said 
to  have  certain  advantages  over  whiting.  White 
lead  and  zinc  are  rarely,  if  ever,  used  in  size,  or 
fresco  painting.  As  the  lime  in  the  plastered 
walls  and  ceilings  which  are  usually  treated  in 
fresco  destroys  many  colors,  the  range  of  avail- 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  241 

able  pigments  is  rather  limited,  but  it  is  extensive 
enough  for  ordinary  purposes.  A  great  deal  of 
money  is  spent  in  advertising  "  cold-water  paint," 
which  is  simply  size  color  in  which  the  glue  is 
made  soluble,  in  various  ways,  in  water  at  the 
ordinary  temperature ;  but,  except  for  the  con- 
venience of  being  able  to  thin  the  paint  with  cold 
water,  the  size  is  better  in  its  normal  condition. 
Very  frequently  alum,  which  has  the  effect  of 
rendering  glue  or  gelatine  less  soluble,  is  added 
to  the  size ;  and  some  painters  put  in  also  soap, 
and  even  linseed  oil,  to  secure  some  fancied  advan- 
tage. However  made,  size  colors,  notwithstand- 
ing all  that  is  claimed  for  them  by  enthusiastic 
advertisers,  are  unsuitable  for  painting  woodwork, 
owing  to  their  total  lack  of  the  elasticity  of  oil 
paints ;  but,  when  well  mixed,  and  well  put  on, 
nothing  gives  a  more  beautiful  finish  to  a  plas- 
tered surface,  the  paint  drying  perfectly  free  from 
gloss,  and  the  colors  generally  having  a  peculiarly 
soft  tone. 

When  badly  mixed  or  put  on,  however,  fresco 
painting  is  likely  to  give  trouble  in  various  ways. 
It  is  usual  to  brush  a  new  wall  or  ceiling  over 
with  thin  glue  size  as  a  preliminary  to  painting, 
in  order  to  fill  the  pores,  and  prevent  the  plaster- 
ing from  absorbing  the  water  unevenly  from  the 
paint ;  and,  after  the  size  is  dry,  the  color  is  put 
on  as  rapidly  as  possible,  in  one  coat.  If  the  pre- 
liminary sizing  has  been  imperfectly  done,  the 
absorption,  or  "  suction,"  of  the  plastering  will 


242  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

show  itself  in  uneven  patches  in  the  finished 
work.  If  the  sizing  is  properly  done,  the  finished 
painting  may  still  be  uneven,  through  insufficient 
mixing  of  the  paint  before  it  is  put  on.  Where 
the  preliminary  sizing  has  been  too  heavy,  or  the 
paint  is  mixed  with  size  either  too  strong  or  not 
strong  enough,  or  if  the  plastered  wall  is  old  and 
greasy,  the  paint  may  come  off,  either  in  fine 
powder,  or  in  little  chips.  In  any  of  these  cases, 
the  only  remedy  is  to  wash  the  wall  or  ceiling 
off  with  hot  water  and  a  sponge,  and  paint  it 
over  again.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  size  it 
a  second  time,  if  the  sizing  was  originally  well 
done,  as  the  washing  does  not  remove  the  glue 
from  the  pores  of  the  plastering.  Even  if  the 
defect  is  a  small  one,  the  washing  of  the  whole 
wall  or  ceiling  with  hot  water  is  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  treating  it,  as  it  is  impossible  to  patch 
or  retouch  size  color,  the  junction  of  the  old  and 
new  work  always  showing  as  a  dark,  shining  line. 
Fortunately,  size  and  whiting  are  cheap,  and  the 
process  of  putting  on  the  color  is  a  very  simple 
one,  so  that  washing  off  and  repainting,  if  the 
first  attempts  are  unsuccessful,  is  not  an  expen- 
sive matter. 

on-painted  Notwithstanding  the  beauty  of  size  colors,  the 
impossibility  of  retouching  them  successfully 
makes  it  desirable  in  houses  of  the  better  class, 
where  washing  off  a  wall  or  ceiling  would  in- 
volve the  moving  of  much  costly  furniture,  and 
perhaps  endanger  expensive  floors  and  wood- 


THE   CARE  OF   WOODWORK  243 

work,  to  paint  the  plastering  in  oil.  For  this 
purpose  it  must  be  sized,  as  it  is  even  more  neces- 
sary to  check  the  "  suction  "  of  a  wall  to  be  after- 
ward painted  in  oil  than  where  size  colors  are 
used.  Usually,  the  size,  which  may  be  either 
ordinary  glue  size  or  varnish,  is  put  on  as  a  first 
coat ;  but  there  are  some  advantages  in  putting 
on  a  coat  of  paint  first,  and  the  size  over  it.  In 
any  case,  at  least  three  coats  of  paint  will  be  re- 
quired, in  addition  to  the  size,  to  give  a  reason- 
ably even  surface.  As  ordinary  oil  paint  is 
glossy  enough  to  reflect  the  light  at  certain  an- 
gles, every  unevenness  in  a  wall  covered  with  it 
is  revealed  ;  so  that  it  is  usual  to  deaden  the  gloss  Flatting, 
of  the  last  coat,  either  by  mixing  it  with  turpen- 
tine alone,  or  by  going  over  the  entire  surface, 
while  the  paint  is  still  wet  and  soft,  with  a  stiff 
brush,  which  is  touched  to  the  surface  so  as  to 
raise  the  paint  in  little  waves.  This  «  stippling  "  stippling, 
leaves  the  paint  with  a  washable  surface,  and  is 
for  this  reason  to  be  preferred  to  «  flatting  "  with 
turpentine,  which,  although  it  gives  a  pretty  sur- 
face, leaves  the  wall  very  susceptible  to  marks  of 
all  kinds,  which  are  not  easily  removed,  since  a 
"  flatted "  coat  can  hardly  be  washed  without 
leaving  streaks,  and  can  be  patched  or  retouched 
only  with  difficulty,  as  color  mixed  with  turpen- 
tine alone  dries  with  a  dark  edge,  like  colors 
mixed  with  size. 

To  the  average  householder,  the  conception  of  Wail-papers, 
a  room  involves  the  idea  of  paper  on  the  walls ; 


244  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

and  wall-papers  still  form  the  mural  decoration 
of  the  vast  majority  of  houses.  They  have  the 
advantage  over  paint  that  they  do  not  show 
scratches  and  wear  so  quickly ;  that  they  are 
easily  changed  or  renewed,  and  that  they  help  to 
"  furnish "  a  room  otherwise,  perhaps,  bare,  be- 
sides in  many  cases  offering  real  artistic  charm. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  papers  soon  fade  and 
look  shabby  ;  some  contain  very  poisonous  colors, 
which  give  off  either  deleterious  dust  or  noxious 
vapors,  or  both  ;  and  all  of  them  are  put  on  with 
flour  paste,  which  slowly  putrefies,  with  the  pro- 
duction of  the  acrid,  musty  emanations  charac- 
teristic of  old  houses.  In  point  of  expense,  there 
is  not  much  to  choose  between  painting  the  walls 
of  a  house,  and  papering  them.  Although  some 
of  the  cheap  wall-papers  are  very  pretty,  the 
cost  of  putting  them  on  has  advanced  greatly 
within  a  few  years,  being  often  several  times  as 
much  as  that  of  the  paper  itself ;  so  that,  in  gen- 
eral, a  wall  can  be  painted  in  size  color  more 
cheaply  than  it  can  be  papered,  even  with  the 
cheapest  paper ;  while  painting  in  oil  costs  some- 
what more  than  papering  with  a  cheap  paper, 
but  much  less  than  papering  of  an  expensive 
character. 

Artistically,  the  choice  between  paper  and 
paint  depends  upon  several  considerations.  While 
walls  simply  painted  unquestionably  look  bare 
in  comparison  with  those  covered  with  paper, 
this  is  sometimes  an  advantage,  as  in  summer 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  245 

cottages,  to  which  they  give  a  feeling  of  space 
and  air,  and  in  rooms  containing  a  large  amount 
of  furniture,  where  they  improve  the  effect  of  the 
furniture  by  affording  a  plain  background,  where 
a  figured  paper  would  produce  a  sense  of  weari- 
some confusion.  Where  pictures  are  to  be  hung, 
also,  either  a  painted  wall  or  a  plain  paper  is 
much  to  be  preferred  to  a  figured  paper.  Very 
frequently,  figured  and  plain  papers,  or  figured 
papers  and  paint,  are  used  together  with  good 
effect.  The  old  William  Morris  system  of  paper-  Morris 
ing  the  wall  of  a  room  to  a  height  of  about  four  s>st 
feet  from  the  floor,  finishing  at  that  point  with  a 
moulding  or  a  black  line ;  then  painting  with  a 
plain  color  from  this  level  to  within  about  six- 
teen inches  of  the  ceiling,  and  finishing  with  a 
figured  paper  frieze,  so  that  the  pictures  come 
against  a  plain  background,  while  the  upper  and 
lower  divisions  of  the  wall  are  decorated,  can 
hardly  be  improved  upon,  if  the  colors  of  paper 
and  paint  are  judiciously  selected,  for  living- 
rooms  of  moderate  size,  particularly  if  they  are 
irregular  in  shape. 

The  papering  of  ceilings,  once  almost  universal  Papered 
in  good  houses,  is  now  out  of  fashion,  the  close, 
bandbox-like  effect  of  a  room  with  the  walls  and 
ceilings  entirely  covered  with  figured  paper  hay- 
ing led  to  its  abandonment ;  but  a  figured  ceiling 
does  not  necessarily  imply  a  figured  wall ;  and, 
as  the  ceiling  is  the  portion  of  the  room  best 
suited  for  decoration,  being  always  unobstructed 


246 


THE   CARE    OF   A   HOUSE 


Cartridge- 
paper. 


and  visible  through  its  whole  extent,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  a  new  system  might  be  evolved, 
with  plain  walls,  and  ceilings  decorated  with  the 
little  gold  stars  or  butterflies  of  the  earlier  ceil- 
ing-papers, or  with  more  ambitious  compositions 
of  birds  or  cherubs  against  a  blue  sky,  which 
would,  with  well-selected  colors,  be  quite  charm- 
ing. As  a  ceiling  presents  an  unbroken  surface, 
there  would  be  little  difficulty  in  reproducing  in 
this  way  the  French  and  Italian  painted  ceilings, 
at  a  moderate  expense. 

Where  a  wall  of  plain  color  is  desired,  either 
with  or  without  figured  friezes  or  dadoes,  cartridge- 
paper  is  much  used,  partly,  no  doubt,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  impression  that  it  is  washable,  like 
oil  paint.  Some  of  the  more  expensive  varieties 
of  cartridge-paper  can  be  wiped  with  a  damp 
cloth  without  injury,  but  rubbing  with  crumbs 
of  stale  bread  is  a  much  safer  operation,  even 
with  these,  and  the  cheap  cartridge-papers  will 
not  bear  anything  more. 

Besides  the  cartridge-papers,  plain  papers  of 
other  sorts  can  be  had,  including  some  very  ex- 
pensive varieties,  painted  in  oil,  or  even  covered 
with  silk. 

As  the  fading,  or  changing  color,  of  wall-papers 
wan-papers.  Detracts  verv  much  from  their  beauty,  it  would 
be  desirable  to  know  what  colors  are  most  sub- 
ject to  change ;  but  this  knowledge  appears  to 
be  denied,  even  to  the  manufacturers  themselves, 
who  can  seldom  speak  with  confidence  on  the 


Colors  in 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  247 

subject.  Yellows  are,  perhaps,  the  most  liable 
to  change  color,  either  by  fading  or  turning  brown, 
and  reds  next ;  and,  in  general,  papers  in  which  all 
the  colors  are  light  show  the  effects  of  fading  the 
least. 

Poisonous  colors  are  more  easily  detected  than  Poisonous 
those  which  will  fade.  It  is  a  common  idea  that 
only  the  green  in  wall-papers  is  poisonous,  or,  at 
least,  arsenical ;  but  arsenic  is  found  in  many 
other  colors,  particularly  in  pinks  and  purples, 
and  even  in  browns,  the  arsenical  pigments  giving 
a  freshness  and  delicacy  to  the  tints  with  which 
they  are  mixed  which  makes  them  popular  among 
manufacturers.  American  wall-paper  manufac- 
turers, as  a  rule,  conscientiously  avoid  arsenical 
colors,  and  the  use  of  them  is  forbidden  by  law 
in  France,  at  least  for  wall-papers  for  domestic 
consumption ;  but  those  manufactured  in  France 
for  export  are  said  to  pass  the  inspector's  criticism 
more  easily,  and  to  contain  arsenic  in  many  cases. 
The  worst  of  all  wall-papers  in  this  respect  are, 
however,  the  Japanese,  some  varieties  of  which  Japanese 
are  so  loaded  with  arsenic  as  to  affect  the  paper- 
hangers  who  put  them  on.  Not  only  is  the  poison 
found  in  the  colors,  but  the  bronze  powders,  which 
the  Japanese  use  very  freely  in  printing  their 
papers,  are  often  highly  arsenical.  These  bronze 
powders  are  readily  brushed  from  the  paper,  while 
the  souring  and  decay  of  the  paste  with  which  the 
paper  is  put  on  causes  chemical  action,  which  may 
help  in  diffusing  arsenical  fumes ;  so  that,  to  per- 


248  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

sons  sensitive  to  arsenical  poisoning,  it  may  Ve 
even  dangerous  to  sleep  regularly  in  a  room 
papered  with  such  paper.  Nor  is  arsenic  the  only 
poison  found  in  wall-papers,  mercury,  which  is 
often  present,  being  little  less  deleterious. 
Testing  For  thorough  testing  of  papers  for  both  arsenic 

for  arsenic!  and  mercury  a  chemist  should  be  employed ;  but 
arsenic  alone  can  be  detected  by  the  amateur 
without  difficulty.  For  this  purpose,  some  tubes 
of  glass,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  so  in  diameter, 
inside,  and  four  or  five  inches  long,  should  be  pre- 
pared by  heating  one  end  in  a  lamp  or  gas  flame, 
drawing  it  out,  and  melting  it  together.  In  each 
tube  should  be  put  some  bits  of  the  paper  to  be 
tested,  and  the  tube  over  them  should  be  filled  for 
an  inch  or  so  with  chips  of  charcoal,  or  charred 
wood.  To  make  the  test,  the  portion  of  the 
tube  containing  the  charcoal  chips  must  first  be 
held  in  a  flame,  until  they  begin  to  glow.  Then 
the  end  of  the  tube,  containing  the  bits  of  paper, 
is  heated,  until  the  paper  is  entirely  consumed. 
The  burning  of  the  paper  volatilizes  any  com- 
pounds of  arsenic  or  antimony  that  may  be 
attached  to  it ;  and  the  fumes,  in  passing  through 
the  red-hot  charcoal  chips,  are  reduced,  and 
deposit  on  the  cool  part  of  the  tube,  above  the 
charcoal,  a  black,  metallic  ring,  which  may  be 
either  of  antimony  or  arsenic.  When  all  the 
tests  desired  have  been  made,  the  tubes  may  be 
broken,  near  the  deposited  ring,  and  immersed 
in  a  solution  of  ordinary  bleaching-powder,  or 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  249 

chloride  of  lime,  such  as  is  sold  in  little  cans  at 
the  grocery  stores  as  a  disinfectant.  If  the 
metallic  ring  is  dissolved  by  the  chloride  of  lime 
solution,  it  consists  of  arsenic.  If  it  is  not  dis- 
solved, it  may  consist  of  antimony,  or,  possibly, 
of  some  organic  compound,  but  not  of  arsenic. 
After  a  little  experience,  the  peculiar  smell  of  the 
arsenical  fumes,  closely  resembling  the  breath  of  a 
person  who  has  just  breakfasted  on  onions,  will 
be  recognized  as  they  issue  from  the  heated  tube, 
before  the  deposited  ring  is  tested  with  the  chloride 
of  lime  solution. 

In  a  well-ventilated  modern  house,  with  plenty  Paste  for 
of  fireplaces  to  give  a  current  of  air,  there  is  not  wall-papera 
usualty  much  annoyance  from  the  smell  caused 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  paste  used  for  put- 
ting on  wall-papers ;  but  in  the  houses  of  the 
poor,  where  there  is  little  or  no  ventilation,  and 
where,  to  save  the  expense  of  taking  off  the  old 
paper,  when  renewals  are  necessary,  the  walls  are 
frequently  covered  with  several  layers,  one  above 
another,  of  alternate  paste  and  paper,  the  odor 
is  often  extremely  unpleasant,  and  probably 
injurious  to  the  inmates.  To  avoid,  as  far  as 
possible,  anything  of  this  kind,  new  paper 
should  never  be  put  on  a  wall  without  cleaning 
the  old  paper  entirely  off,  down  to  the  bare 
plaster.  There  will  then  be  only  one  stratum 
of  paste  on  the  wall ;  and,  as  that  will  be  fresh, 
it  is  not  likely  to  give  trouble,  at  least  for  many 
years,  unless  it  should  get  wet  in  some  way. 


250  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

A  few  careful  owners  of  tenements  for  the  poor 
require  corrosive  sublimate,  or  mercuric  chloride, 
to  be  added  to  the  paste  used  for  putting  on 
papers.  This,  being  very  poisonous,  prevents 
vermin  from  burrowing  under  the  paper,  and 
eating  the  paste,  as  they  are  fond  of  doing ; 
and,  being  one  of  the  most  powerful  antiseptics 
known,  it  preserves  the  paste  from  decomposi- 
tion. A  very  small  quantity  of  the  corrosive 
sublimate,  well  mixed  with  a  pailful  of  paste,  is 
sufficient  for  both  these  purposes  ;  and,  not  being 
volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures,  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  any  injurious  influence  on  the 
air  of  the  room. 

cleaning  In  cleaning  paint  and  paper  it  is  desirable  to 

papnetr.and  know  something  of  the  character  of  the  paint  or 
paper  to  be  treated.  Size  or  fresco  color  cannot 
be  touched  with  water,  which  would  leave  indeli- 
ble spots;  but  it  can  be  cleaned  with  bread 
crumbs.  Stale  bread  must  be  used,  as  fresh 
bread  would  stick  to  the  surface ;  and  the  crust 
must  be  carefully  cut  off,  so  that  there  may  be 
no  hard  particles  to  scratch  the  paint.  The 
remainder  is  then  broken  up,  and  rubbed  over 
the  paint  with  the  hands.  The  crumbs,  as  they 
fall  on  the  floor,  may  be  caught  in  a  paper  and 
used  over  again,  but,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to 
dry  and  harden,  they  must  be  thrown  away,  so 
that  the  paint  may  not  be  scratched.  With  care, 
fresco  color  can  be  very  well  cleaned  in  this 
Wall-papers  may  be  cleaned  in  the  same 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  251 

mariner,  even  where  the  colors  are  very  delicate. 
With  the  plain  dyed  or  ingrain  papers,  generally 
classed  together  as  cartridge-paper,  Indian  meal 
may  be  used  instead  of  bread  crumbs,  but  it 
has  no  advantage  over  the  bread  crumbs,  except 
in  being  cheaper. 

Oil  paint  should  be  capable  of  being  washed  Washing  oU 
with  soap  and  water,  but  the  success  of  the  r 
washing  depends  on  the  way  in  which  it  is 
done,  as  well  as  on  the  character  of  the  paint. 
Flatted  paint,  in  which  the  last  coat  is  mixed 
partially  or  wholly  with  turpentine,  is  very  deli- 
cate, and  is  not  only  easily  soiled,  but  is  washed 
with  great  difficulty.  The  indispensable  requi- 
site of  success  in  washing  such  paint  is  never  to 
allow  soapy  water  to  dry  on  the  surface,  as  it 
will  make  ineffaceable  streaks  in  doing  so.  It 
is  necessary,  therefore,  in  washing,  to  apply  the 
water,  mixed  with  good  soap,  or  some  mild 
alkali,  such  as  soda,  or  saleratus,  or  ammonia, 
or  pearline,  with  a  sponge,  followed  immediately 
by  a  soft  cloth,  with  which  all  trace  of  the 
water  must  be  wiped  off,  before  it  has  time  to 
dry,  even  at  the  edges.  In  this  way  even  a 
flatted  surface  can  be  successfully  cleaned ;  and, 
although  stippled,  or  "egg-shell,"  or  "china- 
gloss  "  surfaces  are  much  less  delicate  than  those 
made  with  turpentine,  it  is  desirable,  even  with 
them,  to  wipe  off  the  washing  water  before  it 
begins  to  dry.  Gritty  materials,  such  as  pumice- 
stone  soap,  "  sapolio,"  or  sand  soap,  should  not 


252 


THE    CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 


Cleaning 

varnished 

surfaces. 


Defects  in 
paint. 


Blisters. 


be  used  in  cleaning  paint  if  it  can  be  avoided. 
Some  spots  and  stains,  undoubtedly,  cannot  be 
removed  without  their  aid ;  but  they  take  off 
the  paint,  as  well  as  the  stain,  and,  after  a  few 
applications,  the  wood  or  plastering  is  left  bare. 

Varnished  surfaces  should,  in  general,  never  be 
washed.  The  best  varnishes  are  nearly  waterproof ; 
but,  even  with  them,  washing  dims  the  surface  ; 
and,  with  inferior  varnishes,  water  causes  white 
or  yellow  spots.  It  is,  therefore,  safest,  in  all 
cases,  to  use  only  a  dampened  cloth  for  cleaning, 
with  or  without  soap,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  dirt  to  be  removed,  rubbing  the  varnish  at 
once  perfectly  dry.  Woodwork  finished  in  wax 
bears  washing  better  than  a  varnished  surface; 
for,  although  water  immediately  turns  the  wax 
white,  rubbing  with  a  hot  woollen  cloth  will 
restore  it ;  or,  if  the  wax  has  been  nearly  washed 
off,  a  little  fresh  wax,  applied  to  the  bare  spot, 
will  make  it  look  as  well  as  ever. 

Painted  or  varnished  woodwork  and  plaster- 
ing, both  inside  and  outside,  are  liable  to  defects, 
which  may  sometimes  be  remedied  without  doing 
the  work  over.  Considering  first  outside  wood- 
work, it  will  often  be  observed  that  the  paint, 
especially  on  the  sunny  side  of  a  house,  is  dis- 
posed to  blister.  This  may  result  from  using 
inferior  paint,  containing  too  little  white  lead 
or  yellow  ochre  to  make  it  cling  to  the  wood  ; 
or,  even  where  good  materials  have  been  used, 
it  may  occur  in  consequence  of  painting  over 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  253 

woodwork  not  thoroughly  dried,  or  superficially 
moistened  from  rain,  or  from  frost.  As  the  paint 
is  comparatively  impervious  to  moisture,  the 
vapors  from  any  water  that  may  be  enclosed 
under  it,  not  being  able  to  escape,  expand,  and 
push  up  in  blisters  the  coating  under  which 
they  are  imprisoned.  For  this  reason  it  is  best, 
in  making  contracts  for  a  new  house,  to  require 
the  builder  to  put  only  two  coats  of  paint  on  the 
outside.  Although  two  coats  of  paint  make  a 
rather  thin  coating  on  new  wood,  the  very 
thinness  of  the  coating  gives  an  opportunity 
for  moisture  underneath  to  evaporate,  without 
throwing  off  the  paint ;  and  when  the  house  is 
two  or  three  years  old,  and  the  woodwork  has 
become  thoroughly  dried,  a  third  coat  can  be  put 
on,  with  the  prospect  that  it  will  remain  in  place  ; 
while,  if  three  coats  are  put  on  at  the  beginning, 
before  thorough  seasoning  of  the  wood,  the  thick 
covering  so  formed  is  very  likely  to  blister. 

When  blisters  have  once  formed,  little  or  noth- 
ing can  be  done  except  to  leave  them  until  the 
time  comes  for  sandpapering  them  off,  and  re- 
painting. If  they  are  few  in  number,  the  bare 
places  which  they  leave  can  be  retouched  before 
putting  on  the  final  coat,  so  that  all  may  be 
covered  equally  ;  but,  if  they  are  very  numerous, 
nothing  but  burning  or  sandpapering  the  paint 
entirely  off  will  restore  a  smooth  surface. 

Similar  retouching  is  necessary,  even  with  good 
paint,  where  rain  and  snow  have  worn  the  paint 


254  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

off  the  most  exposed  points,  before  the  work  can 
be  evenly  covered  ;  and,  where  the  house  has  been 
neglected,  and  the  paint  is  much  worn,  it  is  often 
cheaper  to  apply  two  entire  coats,  without  re- 
touching, than  to  retouch  extensively,  in  the  hope 
of  making  a  single  coat  answer. 

Outside  varnish  cannot  be  retouched,  or  prop- 
erly covered  with  a  fresh  coat ;  and  the  only 
thing  to  be  done,  when  a  varnished  door  becomes 
shabby,  is  to  scrape  off  the  old  varnish,  or  remove 
it  with  oxalic  acid,  and  revarnish. 

Sashes.  In  any  repainting  of  a  house,  the  outside  of  the 

sashes  should  be  particularly  looked  to.  Most 
'glazing  is  done  by  the  sash-maker,  who  sublets 
this  part  to  the  lowest  bidder ;  and  the  lowest 
bidder  contrives  to  make  a  profit  on  the  job  by 
setting  the  glass  with  putty  made  with  marble 
dust  and  kerosene,  instead  of  linseed  oil  and 
whiting,  trusting  to  the  three  coats  of  paint 
which  the  painter  will  put  over  the  putty  to  hold 
it  in  place.  The  paint  has,  in  fact,  this  effect  for 
a  few  months ;  after  which  the  putty  begins  to 
curl  away  from  the  glass  and  fall  off,  carrying 
the  paint  with  it,  and  leaving  the  wood  bare. 
As  rain-water,  running  over  the  glass,  and  lodg- 
ing on  the  sash-bars,  will  soon  rot  them  out, 
it  is  necessary  to  reputty  the  glass  at  once ; 
and  to  do  this  properly,  the  sash-bars  must  be 
painted,  with  good  linseed-oil  paint,  so  that  the 
wood  may  not  absorb  the  oil  from  the  putty  in 
contact  with  it,  and  prevent  its  adhesion,  and 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  255 

good  putty,  of  pure  linseed  oil  and  whiting,  ap- 
plied, allowed  to  harden,  and  painted  three  coats. 
Thus  treated,  the  putty  of  the  sash  will  last  as 
long  as  the  woodwork  itself,  becoming  almost  as 
hard  as  stone,  and  clinging  tightly,  both  to  the 
glass  and  the  wood. 

Inside  painting  is  less  liable  than  outside 
painting  to  blister,  but  it  sometimes  shows  this 
defect,  particularly  about  a  fireplace  ;  and  the  old- 
fashioned  boiled-oil  paint,  being  more  impervious, 
is  more  liable  to  it  than  the  raw  oil  or  flatted 
paint  of  the  present  day.  In  any  case,  sand- 
papering and  repainting  form  the  only  remedy. 
Where  white  inside  paint  turns  yellow,  from  the 
use  of  white  lead  in  rooms  insufficiently  lighted, 
zinc  white  should  be  used  in  repainting ;  and,  if 
the  yellow  appears  in  streaks  or  spots,  a  coat 
of  shellac  before  the  repainting  will  be  useful. 
Occasionally,  a  cheap  imitation  of  enamel  work 
is  made  by  painting  with  two  or  three  coats  of 
ordinary  white  paint,  and  varnishing  the  paint. 
This  method  answers  for  carriage-painting,  where 
first-class  varnishes  are  used  over  black  paint ; 
but  it  is  entirely  unsuitable  for  white  or  ivory 
finish,  the  varnish  soon  darkening,  and  showing 
uneven  yellow  streaks  over  the  white  ground, 
which  nothing  but  repainting  will  conceal. 

Paint  on  plastered  walls  is  very  apt  to  show 
uneven  streaks,  where  the  plastering  underneath 
is  particularly  absorbent,  or  has  not  been  properly 
sized  ;  and,  when  cracks  in  the  plastering  are  cut 


256 


THE   CARE   OF    A   HOUSE 


Glass  and 
glazing. 


Plate-glass. 


out  and  patched  before  painting,  they  remain 
visible,  even  through  several  coats  of  paint,  as 
dead  streaks,  which  are  particularly  conspicuous 
in  work  with  an  "  oil  finish."  There  is,  appar- 
ently, no  remedy  for  this  trouble,  except  frequent 
repainting,  the  streaks  gradually  disappearing 
under  multiplied  coats. 

As,  for  some  reason,  painters  are  usually  in- 
trusted with  the  work  of  setting  glass,  the  care 
of  glass  may  be  considered  in  connection  with 
that  of  paint. 

For  those  who  can  afford  it,  no  window-glass 
compares  in  beauty  with  polished  plate.  Not 
only  is  it  perfectly  flat  and  even,  so  that  objects 
appear  through  it  without  distortion,  but  it  is 
thick  and  strong,  so  that  it  can  be  used  in  large 
sheets  without  much  fear  of  breakage ;  and  it 
keeps  out  the  cold  far  more  effectually  than  or- 
dinary sheet-glass.  Plate-glass  is,  however,  very 
heavy,  so  that  sashes  glazed  with  it,  if  of  large 
size,  are  not  easily  managed;  and  it  is  soft,  and 
much  more  readily  scratched  than  common  glass. 
Sheet-glass.  Of  the  common,  or  sheet-glass,  there  are  two  sorts, 
known  as  "  single-thick  "  and  "  double-thick  "  ; 
the  former  being  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness,  and  the  latter  one-eighth  of  an  inch. 
Sheet-glass  is  made  by  blowing  out  a  lump  of 
melted  glass  into  a  hollow  cylinder,  which,  while 
hot  and  soft,  is  split  through  the  middle,  and 
allowed  to  flatten  out  on  a  stone  or  iron  table. 
The  thin  single-thick  glass  lends  itself  better  to 


THE   CARE   OF   WOODWORK  257 

this  operation,  and  makes  flatter  sheets  than  the 
double-thick  ;  so  that  single-thick  glass  is  not  only 
cheaper,  but  is  flatter,  and  more  free  from  defects, 
than  double-thick  of  the  same  quality,  and  is,  for 
that  reason,  generally  used  in  houses  built  for 
sale.  It  is,  however,  very  fragile,  and  presents 
little  resistance  to  the  cold  of  the  outside  air, 
so  that  double-thick  is  always  to  be  preferred. 
Although  it  costs  very  little  more  than  the  single- 
thick  glass,  it  is  more  than  four  times  as  strong, 
and  is  much  more  efficient  as  a  protection  against 
the  cold  in  winter. 

The  glass  that  our  grandfathers  used  in  their 
windows  was  subject  to  a  bluish  discoloration 
from  exposure  to  the  weather  ;  but  modern  glass 
is  better  made,  and  is  not  likely  to  show  any 
dimness  which  does  not  come  from  extraneous 
and  removable  dirt.  To  remove  this  dirt,  the 
professional  glass-cleaners  use  a  mixture  of  soap 
and  water  and  ground  chalk,  or  whiting.  This 
is  rubbed  over  the  glass  with  a  rag  or  sponge, 
and  allowed  to  dry  ;  and  the  whiting,  which  of 
course  remains  on  the  glass,  is  rubbed  off  later 
with  dry  cloths.  This  process  is  much  more  rapid 
than  that  which  consists  in  washing  with  several 
changes  of  water,  and  answers  quite  as  well. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

KEEPING    A    HOUSE    IN    BEPAIR 

To  none  of  the  concerns  of  life  is  the  proverb 
about  "  a  stitch  in  time  "  more  applicable  than 
to  the  matter  of  keeping  a  building  in  repair. 
The  little  leak,  if  not  attended  to,  soon  becomes 
a  large  one ;  a  spot  of  dry-rot  in  a  timber  soon 
infects  the  whole,  and  the  splitting  of  a  shingle, 
or  the  rusting  of  a  piece  of  tin  in  a  roof,  by  ad- 
mitting water,  may  be  the  source  of  extensive 
decay. 

A  good  lesson  on  the  results  of  neglect  may  be 
derived  from  the  inspection  of  one  of  the  many 
houses  to  be  found  in  every  neighborhood  which 
have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  mortgagees,  or  trus- 
tees, or  careless  landlords  of  other  kinds.  Visit- 
ing one  of  these  structures,  even  though  it  may 
not  have  been  built  many  years,  we  shall  be 
likely  to  observe,  as  we  examine  the  outside,  that 
the  chimneys  bend  slightly  toward  the  northeast, 
owing  to  the  washing  out  of  the  mortar  in  the 
joints  of  the  brickwork  by  rain,  aided  by  the 
disintegrating  action  of  frost.  Very  likely  some 
of  the  bricks  at  the  top  of  the  chimneys  will 
have  become  entirely  detached,  so  that  they  have 
been  blown  off,  either  dropping  into  a  flue  and 

258 


KEEPING   A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR  259 

choking  it,  or  falling  on  the  roof  below,  breaking 
the  slates  or  shingles,  or  making  a  hole  in  the 
tin  or  composition  of  a  flat  roof.  Possibly  the 
metal  flashing  at  the  junction  of  the  chimney 
with  the  roof  will  be  found  to  have  been  blown 
out  of  place  by  the  wind,  or,  by  the  rusting  of  a 
few  nails,  a  shingle  may  have  slipped  down  here 
and  there,  or  the  shingles  in  the  valleys  may  be 
evidently  decayed.  In  any  of  these  cases  there 
will  have  been  a  bad  leak  in  the  roof,  and  the 
plastering  inside  at  that  point  will  be  found 
stained,  if  not  entirely  detached  from  the  laths. 

Looking  at  the  foot  of  the  roof,  we  shall  prob- 
ably find  places  where  the  joints  of  the  gutter 
have  rotted,  allowing  streams  of  water  to  run 
down  the  wTall  below  after  every  shower,  wash- 
ing off  the  paint,  and  showing  the  black  and  de- 
caying wood.  A  little  below  this  point  we  shall 
observe  that  the  blinds,  instead  of  being  rectangu- 
lar, have  sagged  into  a  rhomboidal  shape,  and 
will  no  longer  close  properly,  while  some  of  the 
slats,  forced  out  of  place  by  the  distortion  of  the 
frame  which  holds  them,  have  disappeared.  In 
some  cases,  also,  the  fasts  which  hold  the  blind, 
either  open  or  closed,  have  come  out,  and  the 
blind,  left  at  the  mercy  of  the  wind,  has  slammed 
against  the  window,  breaking  the  glass.  The 
entrance  porch  is  provided  with  a  gutter,  and  a 
conductor,  to  carry  off  the  rain-water,  the  latter 
having  originally  had  a  "  shoe  "  at  the  foot,  to  lead 
what  little  water  would  come  from  the  porch 


260  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

roof  harmlessly  out  upon  the  grass  ;  but  the  shoe 
has  become  detached,  probably  by  the  weight 
of  ice  in  it  in  winter,  and  the  rain-water,  being 
discharged  just  at  the  corner  of  the  porch,  has 
soaked  the  foundation,  besides  blowing  and  spat- 
tering over  the  floor,  so  that  we  find  the  sill  of 
the  porch  so  badly  decayed  that  it  will  hardly 
bear  our  weight ;  while  a  portion  of  the  floor 
boarding  has  already  fallen  through. 

Entering  the  house,  we  find  the  ceilings  and 
floors  stained  in  various  places,  where  rain-water 
has  reached  them  from  a  leak  in  the  roof,  or  a 
broken  window  ;  the  hard-wood  floors  of  the  first- 
story  rooms,  having  swelled,  partly  from  water 
blown  in  over  them,  and  partly  from  the  general 
dampness  of  the  house,  have  «  huffed  up,"  as  the 
carpenters  say,  in  ridges,  at  the  most  exposed 
points ;  the  wall-papers  show  mouldy  streaks, 
from  similar  causes ;  and  the  concrete  floor  of 
the  cellar  is  disintegrated  on  top,  through  the 
freezing  of  water  which  has  blown  in  during  a 
winter  storm,  from  a  basement  window,  the 
fastening  of  which  has  disappeared.  If  the 
house  has  been  for  a  long  time  neglected,  still 
worse  disorders  will  probably  be  apparent,  such  as 
ceilings  fallen,  floors  out  of  level,  and  walls  and 
partitions  distorted,  through  the  rotting  of  sills 
and  girders  ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  con- 
sider the  more  serious  cases. 

Nothing  is  more  discouraging  to  a  householder 
than  to  find  himself  obliged  to  deal  with  an 


KEEPING  A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR  261 

accumulation  of  such  troubles  at  once,  although 
any  one  of  them  separately  might  be  of  little 
importance ;  and  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom,  not 
only  to  prevent  them  from  accumulating,  but  to 
reduce  the  seriousness  of  each,  by  timely  applica- 
tion, in  every  case,  of  the  proper  remedy. 

Of  the  way  in  which  leaks  in  roofs  are  caused 
and  prevented  we  have  already  spoken.  The 
ordinary  householder  does  not  often  possess 
materials  and  apparatus  for  putting  on  new 
flashings,  or  repairing  shingle  or  slate  roofs,  or 
gutters  and  conductors ;  but  a  leak  may  often 
be  temporarily  stopped,  until  a  roofer  can  be  sent 
for,  with  a  bit  of  tarred  felt,  or  a  little  roofing 
pitch,  or  elastic  cement,  and  it  is  very  desirable, 
particularly  for  large  establishments  in  the  coun- 
try, to  keep  a  supply  of  these  materials  on  hand. 

The  repairing  of  a  chimney  is  also  a  difficult 
matter  for  an  amateur ;  but  the  householder  can 
at  least  watch  his  chimneys,  and  send  for  the 
mason  as  soon  as  he  sees  that  the  joints  at  the 
top  are  losing  their  mortar.  By  doing  this, 
the  relaying  in  cement  of  a  few  bricks  at  the  top 
of  the  chimney,  and  the  repointing  of  the  rest  with 
cement,  inserted  into  the  joints,  will  be  sufficient 
to  keep  in  good  order  a  chimney  which,  if  left 
to  itself  a  few  months  longer,  might  have  to  be 
taken  down  to  the  roof,  and  rebuilt,  even  if  it 
did  not  fall,  wholly  or  partially,  in  the  meantime. 

In  places  remote  from  professional  masons,  a 
barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  be  found  a  very 


262  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

useful  addition  to  the  supplies  of  the  establish- 
ment. With  its  aid  loose  bricks,  either  inside  or 
outside  the  house,  can  be  permanently  set  in 
place  ;  concrete  floors  can  be  repaired,  stone  walls 
pointed,  and  even  greenhouse  pipes,  which  have 
begun  to  leak  at  the  joints,  may  be  made  tight. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  use  any  sand  or  lime  with  the 
cement.  On  the  contrary,  work  done  with  clear 
cement  is  stronger  than  that  in  which  any  mixture 
is  used  ;  and  although  Portland  cement  at  $1.50  or 
so  a  barrel  is  more  expensive  material  than  sand, 
the  difference  is  a  mere  trifle  where  repairs  are  con- 
cerned ;  and  the  saving  made  by  employing  home 
talent  on  such  work,  instead  of  sending  for  a  pro- 
fessional mason,  will  soon  pay  for  many  barrels  of 
cement.  It  may  be  observed,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
owners  of  country  estates  who  find  that  the  repairs 
to  their  cellar  walls  and  fences  form  an  important 
item  in  their  annual  expenses,  that  the  Italian 
laborers,  who  are  becoming  very  numerous  in  the 
Eastern  States,  are  almost  universally  tolerably 
accomplished  masons.  As  farm  buildings  in  their 
own  country,  even  to  the  pigsties,  are  always  of 
stone,  they  are  accustomed  from  childhood  to  the 
use  of  a  trowel ;  and  the  Italian  traditions  of 
bonding  the  stones  or  bricks,  and  of  laying  each 
piece  in  a  bed  of  mortar  prepared  for  it,  are 
admirable.  For  laying  face-brick  or  cut  stone, 
a  skilled  workman  is,  of  course,  required ;  but, 
for  the  rough  masonry  of  a  farm,  most  Italian 
laborers  are  well  qualified. 


KEEPING   A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR  263 

As  the  disorders  of  exterior  woodwork  gen- 
erally proceed  from  decay,  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  take  too  great  precautions  against  exposing 
timber  of  any  sort  to  alternations  of  dryness  and 
moisture.  If  to  these  are  added  a  close  atmos- 
phere, such  as  exists  under  the  boards  of  a  floor, 
decay  may  proceed  so  rapidly  as  to  destroy  new 
timbers  in  a  few  months.  The  best  prophylactic, 
as  the  doctors  say,  against  decay  is  a  good  circu- 
lation of  air  ;  and  to  keep  piazza  and  porch  floors 
from  rotting,  not  only  should  rain-water  from 
conductors  be  carried  to  a  distance,  but  the  floor 
boards  should  be  laid  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart, 
and  the  outside  should  be  finished  with  lattice 
work,  so  that  air  can  at  all  times  circulate  freely 
about  them.  If  this  is  done,  the  inevitable 
surface  wetting  of  the  floor  by  rain  will  do  no 
injury,  as  the  water  does  not  soak  in  far,  and 
soon  evaporates. 

The  sagging  of  blinds,  which  is  extremely  com-  Sagging  of 
mon,  but  always  gives  a  slatternly,  dilapidated  l 
look  to  a  house,  is  due,  not  to  decay,  but  to 
shrinkage,  which  causes  the  wooden  pin  driven 
through  the  corners  of  the  frame  of  the  blind  to 
become  loose  ;  and  as  the  friction  of  this  pin  is, 
ordinarily,  the  only  thing  that  keeps  the  corners 
rigid,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  them,  when  the 
pin  shrinks,  from  assuming  other  angles,  as  grav- 
ity may  dictate.  After  the  distortion  has  become 
so  serious  that  the  slats  have  fallen  out,  it  is 
hardly  worth  while  to  try  to  correct  it,  as  blinds 


264  THE   CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 

are  cheap,  and  new  slats  are  not  easily  made  by 
hand  to  take  the  places  of  the  old  ones  that  may 
have  been  lost ;  but,  until  it  has  reached  this 
point,  it  may  be  readily  and  effectually  corrected 
by  taking  off  the  blind,  pushing  the  corners  back 
to  the  proper  right  angle,  and  fixing  them  there 
by  screwing  on  the  face  of  the  blind,  at  the  cor- 
ners, iron  angles  which  are  made  for  the  purpose, 
and  can  be  obtained  from  any  large  hardware 
dealer  for  a  few  cents  each.  As  they  are  stamped 
out  of  heavy  steel  plate,  they  are  very  strong ; 
and  as  the  angle  cannot  be  distorted,  after  they 
are  once  firmly  screwed  on,  without  breaking 
them,  they  cure  effectually  the  disposition  of  the 
blind  to  sag.  For  small  blinds,  one  angle-iron  is 
sufficient  to  maintain  all  the  four  corners  indefi- 
nitely in  their  proper  position,  on  the  principle 
that  if  one  angle  of  a  parallelogram  is  a  right 
angle,  all  the  others  must  be  right  angles ;  but, 
for  blinds  of  the  usual  size,  it  is  better  to  use 
two,  as  the  strain  on  the  screws  of  a  single  one  is 
very  severe.  In  and  about  New  York,  blind 
hinges  can  sometimes  be  found,  which  comprise 
an  angle-iron  of  this  kind  ;  but  they  are  unknown 
in  New  England,  where  the  hinges  are  always 
put  on  the  back  of  the  blind,  and  a  separate 
angle-iron  must  be  used  for  the  face.  Besides 
setting  up  and  securing  the  corners,  the  hinges 
and  fastenings  of  blinds  need  occasional  inspec- 
tion, as  a  broken  hinge,  or  a  missing  fastening, 
means  violent  slamming  in  the  next  storm,  which 


KEEPING   A   HOUSE   IN    REPAIR  265 

will  probably  break  the  blind,  and  very  possibly 
the  window  also. 

The  dilapidations  which  follow  neglect  in  the 
inside  of  a  house  usually  involve  more  expense 
in  repairing  than  those  which  make  themselves 
manifest  on  the  outside ;  so  that  the  first  indica- 
tion that  anything  is  out  of  order  should  be 
investigated,  and  a  remedy  applied  at  once.  Set- 
tlements from  decay,  or  from  the  shrinkage  or 
bending  of  timbers,  or  the  failure  of  foundations, 
have  already  been  treated  of,  and  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  add  that  they  should  be  attended  to 
immediately.  Apart  from  these  structural  diffi- 
culties, the  most  common  source  of  interior 
troubles  is  water.  This  may  come  from  a  burst 
or  leaky  pipe,  or  fixture,  and  will,  in  that  case, 
require  to  be  treated  by  a  plumber,  unless  the 
householder  possesses  courage  and  skill  enough 
to  deal  with  it  himself;  or,  it  may  come  from 
rain,  admitted  through  a  leaky  roof,  or  an  open 
or  broken  window.  Under  any  circumstances  the 
leak  should  be  immediately  found  and  stopped, 
as  continued  or  repeated  wetting  will  bring  down 
ceilings,  and  stain  floors  irretrievably,  besides, 
in  many  cases,  swelling  the  boards,  so  as  to  force 
them  up  from  the  beams,  causing  irregularities 
of  surface  which  are  not  easily  remedied. 

For  the  householder  who  has  not  glaziers  at  Setting 
hand  it  is  of  importance  to  know  how  to  cut  and  glass' 
set  a  light  ??  glass  on  occasion,  as  it  often  hap- 
pens that  &,  broken  pane,  unless  quickly  repaired, 


266  THE   CAKE   OF   A  HOUSE 

may  give  serious  trouble.  Cheap  glass-cutters, 
the  cutting  part  of  which  consists  of  a  wheel 
of  hardened  steel,  may  be  bought  for  15  or  20 
cents ;  and  there  are  people  who  can  cut  a 
piece  of  glass  with  a  red-hot  poker,  or  a  string 
dipped  in  alcohol ;  but  a  good  glazier's  diamond 
can  be  bought  at  the  large  hardware  stores,  or 
the  painters'  supply  houses,  for  about  14.00,  and 
will  soon  save  its  cost  by  the  superiority  of  its 
work ;  as,  with  its  help,  not  only  window-panes, 
but  small  pieces  of  glass,  for  framing  pictures, 
making  microscope  slides,  and  a  multitude  of 
other  purposes,  can  be  cut  with  precision,  and 
without  the  waste  from  breakage  which  com- 
monly attends  the  use  of  the  cheap  cutters.  It 
is  not  at  all  difficult  to  learn  by  trial  how  to  use 
a  glazier's  diamond.  Very  little  pressure  is  nec- 
essary ;  and,  after  the  cut  is  once  started,  it  is 
readily  guided. 

It  is  said  to  be  a  rule  of  the  glaziers'  unions 
that  any  member  who  may  be  called  to  replace 
a  broken  or  cracked  pane  of  glass  must  begin  his 
labors  by  smashing  the  old  pane  into  small  splin- 
ters, before  he  sets  the  new  one,  so  as  to  prevent 
any  person  from  utilizing  the  pieces  of  the  old 
pane  by  cutting  them  into  smaller  ones.  As  a 
pane  of  window-glass  of  ordinary  quality  often 
costs  11.50  to  $2.00  the  advantage  to  the  house- 
holder of  being  able  to  cut  and  set  his  own  glass, 
without  having  pieces  destroyed  that  might  be 
utilized  elsewhere,  is  obvious. 


KEEPING  A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR 


267 


Supposing  a  window-pane  to  need  replacing,  Setting 
the  first  step  in  doing  so  is  to  ascertain  the  size  g  as 
of  the  glass  required  for  the  purpose.  Usually, 
the  sash-bars  are  "  rebated  "  out  three-sixteenths 
of  an  inch  to  receive  the  glass,  so  that  the  new 
pane  required  will  be  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
wider  than  the  « sight  size,"  or  clear  dimen- 
sions, of  the  sash  in  which  it  is  to  be  set.  In 
the  case  of  very  large  lights,  the  rebate  may 
occasionally  be  deeper  than 
this ;  but,  if  so,  this  will 
usually  be  shown  by  the 
moulding  on  the  sash-bar 
(Fig.  31)  which  occupies  the 
same  space  as  the  rebate ;  so 
that  the  distances  between 
the  flat  portions  of  the  sash- 
bars  give  correctly  the  size 
of  glass  required ;  or  the  size 
may  be  measured  on  the  outside  of  the  sash, 
where,  of  course,  the  depth  of  the  rebate  is 
visible.  Usually,  in  order  to  avoid  waste  of 
glass,  sashes  are  made  so  as  to  take  glass  of 
sizes  measured  by  even  inches ;  but  this  is  not 
an  invariable  rule. 

The    proper    dimensions    having    been    ascer-  Cutting 
tained,  a  pane  may  be  cut  from  any  spare  pieces  glass' 
at  hand.    For  amateurs,  it  is  convenient  to  mark 
the  outline  of  the  pane  required  on  a  piece  of 
paper,  and  put  the  glass  over  it,  guiding  the  dia- 
mond with  a  ruler.     After  each  cut  is  made,  the 


FIG.  31. 


268  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

glass  may  be  separated  neatly  by  putting  the 
piece  on  a  board,  or  table,  with  the  line  of  the  cut 
exactly  over  the  edge  of  the  board,  and  trying  to 
bend  the  glass  over  the  edge.  This  will  cause  it 
to  break  smoothly  on  the  required  line.  Evi- 
dently, care  should  be  taken  not  to  cut  the  glass 
too  large.  It  may  be  a  fraction  of  an  inch  too 
small  without  harm,  but,  if  cut  too  large,  it  is 
difficult  to  trim  off  the  excess. 

The  new  pane  having  been  cut,  the  old  one  is 
removed  by  cutting  away  the  putty  on  the  out- 
side, and  taking  out  the  triangular  « tin  tacks  " 
which  hold  the  glass  in  place,  under  the  putty. 
The  glass  can  then  be  taken  out ;  but  the  "  back 
putty,"  in  which  the  glass  was  bedded,  must  also 
be  removed,  in  order  to  bed  the  new  piece  prop- 
erly. Fresh  putty  is  then  to  be  put  in  place  of 
the  old  bedding-putty,  the  new  piece  of  glass 
pressed  firmly  into  place,  the  tacks  inserted  in 
their  old  positions,  and  lightly  hammered,  or 
driven  in  with  the  putty-knife,  and  the  outside 
putty  put  on,  smoothing  it,  when  the  work  is  com- 
pleted, with  the  putty -knife.  After  hardening  a 
day  or  two,  the  putty  may  be  painted  to  match 
the  other  portions  of  the  window.  In  the  case  of 
large  lights,  it  is  most  convenient  for  glazing  to 
take  out  the  sash  altogether,  which  can  easily  be 
done  by  taking  out  the  screws  from  the  "  inside 
beads,"  or  strips  which  line  the  sides  and  top  of 
the  window,  inside,  removing  the  beads,  and 
swinging  the  sash  in  far  enough  to  allow  the 


KEEPING   A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR  269 

cords  which  hold  the  weights  to  be  reached  and 
detached.  After  detaching,  they  must  be  knotted 
again,  to  prevent  them  from  being  drawn  over 
the  pulleys  into  the  weight  boxes.  If  the  broken 
pane  is  in  the  upper  sash,  it  will  be  necessary, 
after  removing  the  inside  beads,  to  take  out  also 
the  «  parting  bead,"  or  slip  of  wood  which  keeps 
the  upper  and  lower  sash  apart.  This  is  simply 
inserted  into  a  groove,  and  can  be  readily  taken 
out  and  replaced.  The  upper  sash,  when  the 
parting  bead  is  out,  can  be  swung  into  the  room 
and  detached.  After  freeing  them  from  the 
weight  lines,  the  sashes  may  be  laid  on  a  table, 
or  bench,  fitted  with  new  glass,  and  put  in 
place  again,  the  beads  being  replaced  to  hold 
all  secure. 

Where  a  window  cord  is  broken,  or  has  escaped  Broken  win- 
from  the  hands  in  removing  a  sash,  the  trouble  dowcords- 
may  generally  be  remedied  by  taking  off  the 
inside  beads,  and  removing  the  screw,  or  screws, 
which  will  be  found  under  them,  near  the  bottom 
of  the  frame.  These  screws  hold  in  place  a  por- 
tion of  the  frame,  which,  on  being  released,  can 
be  taken  out,  disclosing  a  "  pocket,"  in  which  one 
or  two  weights  can  be  dimly  seen.  There  is 
usually  a  pocket  on  each  side  of  the  window, 
giving  access  to  all  the  weights,  of  which  each 
sash  has  two,  one  on  each  side.  By  putting  the 
hand  through  the  opening  any  weight  can  be 
taken  out,  a  broken  cord  detached,  and  a  fresh 
one  put  in.  For  the  latter  purpose  the  cord 


270  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

should  first  be  attached  to  the  sash  requiring  it^ 
either  by  means  of  a  knot,  or  of  a  metal  anchor, 
inserted  in  a  hollow  provided  for  it  on  the  side  of 
the  sash.  The  other  end  of  the  cord  is  then  to 
be  passed  over  its  appropriate  pulley  at  the  top 
of  the  frame,  and  let  down,  inside  the  weight  box, 
until  it  can  be  reached  with  the  hand,  pulled  out, 
and  tied  to  the  weight.  The  sash,  after  the  cord 
is  passed  over  the  pulley  into  the  weight  box, 
should  be  raised  to  its  full  height,  and  held  there 
with  a  stick  or  other  support,  while  the  cord  is 
being  tied.  The  cord,  which  is  usually  tied  to 
the  loop  of  the  weight  with  several  knots,  to 
prevent  slipping,  should  be  just  long  enough 
to  allow  the  weight  to  swing  clear  of  the 
bottom  of  the  weight  box  while  the  sash  is 
raised  to  its  fullest  extent.  If  it  is  shorter,  the 
top  of  the  weight  may,  when  the  sash  is  pulled 
down,  be  drawn  against  the  pulley,  breaking  the 
cord ;  and,  if  it  is  longer,  the  bottom  of  the 
weight  will  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  weight  box 
before  the  sash  is  thrown  up  to  its  fullest  extent, 
stretched  This  fault,  which  is  very  common,  and  is  pro- 
cordB?W  duced  by  the  gradual  stretching  of  the  cord,  or 
yielding  of  the  knots,  as  well  as  by  carelessness 
in  the  original  adjustment,  is  most  annoying 
when  it  occurs  in  connection  with  the  upper  sash, 
as  it  shows  itself  by  the  refusal  of  this  sash  to 
ascend  to  its  proper  place ;  so  that,  in  order  to 
lock  the  window,  it  is  necessary  to  push  up  the 
upper  sash  with  a  stick  or  with  the  hands,  while 


KEEPING  A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR  271 

it  is  being  locked.  As  the  weight  of  the  upper 
sash,  if  not  counterbalanced  by  the  sash-weights 
hanging  free,  strains  the  sash-lock  severely, 
the  pockets  should  be  opened,  the  weights 
of  the  upper  sash,  which  are  those  nearest 
the  outside  of  the  window,  taken  out,  and  the 
cords  shortened  ;  the  sash  being  held  up  mean- 
while with  a  stick,  that  it  may  not,  when  relieved 
of  the  weights,  fall  on  the  head  of  the  operator. 

It  occasionally  happens,  particularly  with  Twisted  win- 
mullioned  windows,  that  the  cords  and  weights 
become  so  entangled  that  they  cannot  be  brought 
into  order  from  the  pocket.  In  this  case  it  may 
be  necessary  to  take  off  the  architrave,  or  interior 
trim  of  the  window,  which  will  in  frame  houses 
expose  the  whole  length  of  the  weight  box.  The 
architrave  is  firmly  nailed  at  one  edge  to  the 
window-frame,  and  at  the  other  to  a  "  ground," 
and  unless  taken  off  with  care,  it  is  likely  to  be 
marred.  In  order  to  remove  it,  the  inside  bead  of 
the  window  is  first  to  be  taken  off.  This  will 
show  the  edge  of  the  architrave  where  it  is  nailed 
to  the  frame.  As  this  joint  is  covered  under 
ordinary  circumstances  by  the  inside  bead,  a 
strong  screw-driver  may  be  used  to  separate  the 
architrave  from  the  frame.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  keep  the  joint  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
architrave,  where  it  meets  other  portions  of  the 
trim,  from  being  damaged  ;  and,  after  one  edge  is 
separated,  the  other  may  be  reached  by  the 
screw-driver  from  the  inside  and  separated  from 


272  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

the  "  ground  "  without  making  any  marks  which 
will  be  visible  on  the  outside.  After  the  neces- 
sary work  has  been  accomplished,  the  architrave 
may  be  put  back,  interposing  a  piece  of  board 
between  it  and  the  hammer  which  will  probably 
be  needed  to  get  it  into  its  place.  Even  with  the 
greatest  care,  the  putty  over  the  heads  of  the 
nails  in  the  architrave  is  likely  to  fall  out,  and 
some  small  scratches  are,  perhaps,  inevitable ; 
but  such  defects  are  not  very  noticeable,  and  are 
easity  remedied  if  necessary. 

If  the  pulleys,  cords,  and  weights  are  kept  in 
good  order,  a  window  is  not  likely  to  give  trouble 
for  many  years.  The  parting  beads  sometimes 
warp  and  spring  out  of  place,  but  they  can  be 
secured  by  a  screw  at  the  foot,  driven  into  the 
sill  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  removal  of  the 
bead  when  required.  The  sashes  also  shrink 
slightly  in  one  direction,  and  the  inside  beads  in 
the  other,  so  that  a  sash  originally  fitted  tightly 
Rattling  may  give  annoyance  by  rattling  in  windy  weather. 
It  is  now  common  to  put  on  inside  beads  with 
screws  passing  through  brass  sockets  with  slotted 
holes,  so  that  the  screws  can  be  relaxed,  the 
beads  pushed  up,  and  the  screws  tightened  again 
in  a  few  minutes.  In  this  way  the  sashes  can  be 
perfectly  adjusted  at  any  time,  so  as  neither  to 
bind  nor  rattle ;  and  this  is,  probably,  the  best 
and  cheapest  way  of  meeting  the  difficulty  ;  but 
other  devices,  such  as  rubber  wheels,  which  are 
screwed  to  the  beads,  pressing  on  the  sash,  or 


KEEPING  A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR  273 

strips  of  rubber  set  in  wood  or  metal  moulding, 
are  sometimes  used. 

Sashes  that  rattle  because  they  are  too  loose 
are  more  common  than  those  that  are  too  tightly 
fitted,  but  the  latter  often  occur.  With  adjust- 
able sockets  and  screws  on  the  inside  beads,  the 
sticking  is  usually  quickly  remedied ;  and  such 
as  may  remain  is  generally  cured  by  rubbing  the 
grooves  in  the  frame  in  which  the  sashes  slide 
with  paraffine  or  with  common  hard  soap.  The 
latter  is  probably  quite  equal  to  the  paraffine  as  a 
lubricant  for  wood  ;  but,  not  being  waterproof, 
it  does  not  last  so  long. 

Sash-fasts,  which  are  indispensable  as  a  pro- 
tection against  burglars,  often  show  a  disposition 
to  come  out.  They  are  usually  packed  with 
screws  far  too  short  for  security ;  and  as  they 
furnish  excellent  examples  of  the  power  of  an 
inclined  plane,  it  is  not  surprising  that,  when  the 
sashes  do  not  quite  meet  in  closing,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  ice,  or  gravel,  or  other  foreign  sub- 
stance under  the  bottom  of  the  lower  sash,  or 
between  the  upper  sash  and  the  top  of  the  frame, 
the  forcible  closing  of  the  sash-fast,  as  it  must 
either  crush  the  obstruction,  or  pull  out  the 
screws,  usually  produces  the  latter  result.  If 
people,  before  locking  a  window,  would  see  that 
the  "  meeting-rails  "  came  evenly  together,  and  if 
they  did  not  do  so,  would  raise  the  lower  sash 
and  brush  away  everything  sticking  to  the  edge 
of  the  sash,  or  lying  on  the  sill  under  it,  sash-fasts 


274  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

would  not  get  loose ;  but,  as  this  is  too  much  to 
expect  of  human  nature,  they  must  occasionally 
be  reset,  with  longer  screws. 

The  faults  Doors  share  some  of  the  faults  of  windows, 
besides  having  others  of  their  own.  Among  the 
former  is  a  disposition  to  stick  in  damp  weather, 
owing  partly  to  the  softening  of  the  paint  or 
varnish  on  them  by  the  dampness,  and  partly  to 
the  swelling  of  the  wood,  by  absorption  of  mois- 
ture. In  this  latter  respect  there  is  a  great 
difference  between  doors  of  various  woods. 
Whitewood  is,  perhaps,  the  worst  wood  in  this 
respect.  Being  of  a  spongy  texture,  doors  made 
of  it  will  often  swell  in  the  damp  days  of  sum- 
mer, so  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  open  them, 
and  will  shrink  again  in  winter,  when  the  air  of 
the  house  is  dry,  so  that  the  bolts  of  the  lock 
will  hardly  catch ;  and  these  variations  are  re- 
peated every  season,  whitewood  never  losing  its 
susceptibility  to  the  effects  of  moist  and  dry  air. 
The  ordinary  remedy  for  the  sticking  of  doors, 
which  consists  in  taking  off  the  hinges,  planing 
the  back  edge  of  the  door,  and  putting  the  hinge 
on  again,  must,  therefore,  be  applied  with  caution 
to  whitewood  doors ;  for,  if  they  are  made  small 
enough  to  shut  easily  in  the  dog-days,  they  will 
often  be  so  small  in  winter  that  they  will  not 
stay  shut.  Pine  doors  are  the  best  in  common 
use  in  this  respect,  as  pine  shrinks  less  than  any 
other  wood,  except  California  redwood,  and, 
when  once  dried,  has  very  little  tendency  to 


KEEPING  A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR  275 

absorb  moisture  again.  The  so-called  hard-wood 
doors,  which  really  consist  of  veneers,  from  one- 
eighth  to  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  of  oak, 
mahogany,  cherry,  or  ash,  glued  to  a  pine  core, 
behave  like  doors  of  solid  pine ;  and,  if  properly 
fitted  in  the  first  place,  with  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  free  space  all  around,  are  not  likely  either 
to  shrink  or  swell  enough  to  give  trouble. 

They  may,  however,  stick  from  other  causes.  Sagging  of 
Very  frequently  the  hinges  of  doors  are  too  light,  c 
or  the  screws  not  long  enough,  so  that  they  yield 
slightly  under  the  powerful  leverage  of  a  heavy 
door,  letting  the  top  of  the  door  fall  forward  suf- 
ficiently to  bring  the  upper  corner  in  contact 
with  the  frame,  and  the  lower  corner  with  the 
threshold.  Then  the  door  binds,  and  a  carpen- 
ter is  sent  for,  who  usually  planes  off  the  corners 
a  little,  but  without  doing  anything  to  strengthen 
the  hinges,  or  the  screws,  which  continue  to  yield 
until  the  door  again  binds,  when  the  process  is 
repeated.  The  planing  away  of  the  corners 
of  the  door  destroys  its  rectangular  shape,  so 
that  it  can  never  again  be  made  to  fit  neatly  in 
its  frame ;  and  it  is  far  better,  instead  of  "  eas- 
ing" it  in  this  way,  to  put  on  heavier  hinges, 
with  longer  screws,  or  to  put  an  additional  hinge 
in  the  middle  of  the  door,  so  that  no  sagging  can 
take  place  after  the  screws  are  once  driven  firmly 
home.  All  doors  more  than  seven  feet  high 
should  have  three  hinges  in  any  case ;  and  solid 
bronze  or  brass  hinges,  if  used,  should  have  steel 


276  THE   CARE   OF   A   HOUSE 

bushings,  as  the  soft  metal  will  otherwise  soon 
wear  away,  and  let  the  door  sag. 

Even  when  the  door  is  properly  supported,  it 
may  bind,  through  settlements  or  shrinkage  in 
the  partition,  which  distort  the  frame  of  the  door. 
In  the  framing  of  wooden  houses  it  is  not  un- 
usual to  see  the  partition  stud  on  one  side  of  a 
door  opening  standing  on  a  girder  or  partition 
cap  under  the  floor,  while  the  stud  on  the  other 
side  of  the  opening  stands  on  the  top  of  the  floor. 
As  the  floor  beams  shrink,  the  latter  stud  de- 
scends with  them,  often  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or 
more,  while  the  stud  which  rests  on  the  support 
below  keeps  its  place,  and  the  door-frame  is,  in 
consequence,  distorted  quite  sufficiently  to  make 
the  door  bind  against  it.  In  this  case,  nothing 
can  be  done  except  to  plane  off  the  door  until 
its  upper  edge  is  again  parallel  with  the  frame ; 
and  as  the  movement  of  the  frame  carries  with 
it  the  striking-plate  of  the  lock,  while  the  lock 
itself,  attached  to  the  door,  remains  in  place,  there 
is  usually  difficulty  in  locking  or  latching  the 
door,  and  the  holes  in  the  striking-plate  must  be 
filed  out. 

The  locks  and  knobs  of  doors  often  give 
trouble,  independent  of  any  .settlement.  Most 
locks  have  certain  portions  of  the  interior  mech- 
anism of  cast  iron,  which  is  easily  broken,  and 
the  fragments,  in  such  a  case,  often  fall  down  so 
as  to  prevent  the  key  from  being  turned.  If  this 
should  happen  after  the  door  is  locked,  it  may 


KEEPING   A   HOUSE   IN   REPAIR  277 

be  necessary  to  cut  the  bolt  entirely  off  by  means 
of  a  thin,  flat  file,  with  teeth  only  on  the  edges, 
inserted  into  the  space  between  the  door  and  the 
frame,  before  the  door  can  be  released.  The 
mortise  bolts  which  are  set  in  the  thickness  of 
the  door,  with  a  knob  or  other  handle  outside 
for  operating  them,  are  liable  to  similar  acci- 
dents, which  must  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Knobs,  unless  they  are  so  fragile  as  to  break, 
give  most  annoyance  by  coming  off,  through  the 
falling  out  of  the  screw  which  holds  them  upon 
their  spindle.  For  some  reason,  these  screws  are 
generally  so  loosely  fitted  that  they  shake  out  of 
place  in  using  the  knob,  and  unless  the  house- 
holder is  prudent  enough  to  go  about  occasion- 
ally with  a  screw-driver,  and  tighten  those  that 
are  loose,  they  are  likely  to  come  out  altogether, 
and  the  knob  then  pulls  out  of  the  door.  Screws 
of  the  proper  size  and  shape  can  be  had  in 
bronze,  brass,  and  iron,  at  the  hardware  stores, 
and  it  is  well  to  have  some  on  hand  to  replace 
losses,  so  that  the  knobs  may  be  kept  at  all  times 
in  condition  for  use. 

The  door-knob  itself  will  often  require  atten-  Door-knobs, 
tion.  The  most  satisfactory  material  is  bronze, 
in  what  is  called  "  statuary  finish."  This  is  a 
dark  brown  which  never  changes,  except  where 
projecting  portions  are  polished  by  the  hands. 
The  bright  bronze  is  pretty  when  new,  but  soon 
discolors  unevenly ;  and  brass  knobs,  although 
fashionable,  require  frequent  rubbing  to  keep 


278  THE   CARE   OF   A  HOUSE 

them  presentable.  Glass  knobs  are  clean  and 
strong,  and  might  with  advantage  be  produced  in 
a  much  greater  variety  of  shapes  and  colors  than 
can  be  found  at  present  in  the  market ;  but  as 
the  glass  must  be  set  in  metal,  which  will  require 
occasional  attention,  there  is  no  saving  of  trouble 
in  using  them.  Wooden  knobs,  which  were  once 
very  fashionable,  and  are  still  in  use,  have  the 
disadvantage  that  the  varnish  with  which  they  are 
coated  becomes  sticky  and  black  with  use,  but 
they  can  be  cleaned  and  revarnished  in  case  of 
need.  Celluloid  is  a  good  material,  and  would 
lend  itself  to  the  production  of  very  beautiful 
effects ;  but,  although  colored  celluloid  knobs 
were  once  in  limited  use,  the  manufacture  of 
them  seems  to  have  been  abandoned. 


INDEX 


A,  B,  and  C  qualities,  166. 
Absorption  tiles,  99. 
Adulterations  of  paint,  235. 
Air-bound  radiators,  89. 
Air-chambers,  155. 
Air-pipes,  140. 
Air-supply,  67. 
Ash  floors,  217. 
Automatic  control,  54. 

B 

Back  vents,  132. 
Bad  draught,  39. 
Ball-cocks,  161. 
Baltimore  heater,  31. 
Base-burner  stoves,  32. 
Baths,  117. 
Bath-boilers,  135. 
Bath-overflows,  119. 
Battery,  electric,  200. 
Beams,  floor,  4. 
Bending  chimneys,  19. 
Birch  floors,  218. 
Blinds,  sagging  of,  263. 
Blisters  in  paint,  252. 
Blowers,  31. 
Boilers,  43,  75. 
Borders,  floor,  214. 
Brass  pipe,  134. 
Built,  how  a  house  is,  1. 


Bulged  plastering,  10. 
Burglar  alarms,  207. 
By-pass,  140. 


Care  of  fireplaces,  25. 
Care  of  gas-fixtures,  195. 
Care  of  plumbing,  173. 
Care  of  woodwork,  209. 
Cartridge  paper,  246. 
Ceilings,  papered,  245. 
Cesspools,  93. 
Check-draught,  54. 
Chimneys  and  fireplaces,  19. 
Chimneys,  decayed,  19. 
Chimney-tops,  23. 
China-gloss  paint,  232. 
City  houses,  6. 
Cleaning  paint,  250. 
Cleaning  traps,  106. 
Cleaning  varnish,  252. 
Cleaning  wall-paper,  250. 
Cleanouts  in  drains,  108. 
Clean  outs  in  furnaces,  66. 
Clinches,  9. 
Clinkers,  63. 
Clogging  of  cesspools,  94. 
Cold-air  box,  49. 
Cold-water  paint,  241. 
Combination  furnace,  66. 
Composition  roofs,  15. 
Compression-cocks,  166. 
279 


280 


THE   CARE   OF  A  HOUSE 


Condensation,  88,  164. 
Construction,  2. 
Control,  automatic,  54. 
Cracks  in  plastering,  8. 
Cutting  glass,  267. 

D 

Dampers,  25. 
Defects  in  paint,  252. 
Defects  in  plastering,  9. 
Defective  flues,  20. 
Direct  draught,  53. 
Direct-indirect  heating,  75. 
Direct  steam  heating,  74. 
Discoloration  of  paint,  232. 
Doors,  faults  of,  274. 
Door-knobs,  277. 
Down-draughts,  21. 
Drains,  103. 
Draught,  bad,  39. 
Drip  pipe,  87. 

E 

Earthenware,  180. 
Electric  bells,  207. 
Electric  gas-lighting,  199. 
Electrical  fixtures,  198. 
Enamel  paint,  231. 
Enamelled  iron,  167. 
Evaporating  pan,  57. 
Evaporation,  57. 
Expansion  pipe,  137. 


Faucets,  155. 
Finish,  painted,  230. 
Fireplaces,  23. 
Fireplaces,  smoky,  26. 
Flashings,  15. 
Flat  roofs,  14. 


Flatted  paint,  232. 
Floor-boards,  4. 
Floor-borders,  214. 
Floors,  209. 
Floors,  hardwood,  215. 
Floors,  kitchen,  222. 
Floors,  painted,  215. 
Floors,  waxing,  219. 
Flues,  20. 

Flues,  defective,  20. 
Flushing-tank,  101. 
Foot  vent,  142. 
Freezing  of  radiators,  89. 
Fresco  painting,  241. 
Frozen  pipes,  175. 
Furnaces,  48. 
Furnace  management,  64. 
Furring  strips,  3. 


Gas-keys,  191. 

Gas  pipes  and  fixtures,  188. 

Georgia  pine,  216. 

Girders,  3. 

Glass  and  glazing,  256. 

Glass  setting,  265. 

Grates,  37. 

Grease  in  drains,  107. 

Ground-cocks,  156. 

H 

Hall  registers,  70. 
Hammering  in  steam-pipes,  85, 
Hardwood  floors,  215. 
Hearths,  26. 
Heating  water,  43.- 
Hot-air  pipes,  66. 
Hot-water  attachment,  65. 
Hot-water  heating,  76. 
Hot-water  pipes,  135. 


INDEX 


281 


Houses,  city,  6. 
Houses,  wooden,  2. 


Imperfect  circulation,  80. 
Incandescent  lighting,  198. 
Indirect  draught,  53. 
Indirect  hot-water  heating,  78. 
Indirect  steam  heating,  74. 
Iron  sinks,  169. 


Jacketed  stoves,  32. 
Japanese  wall-papers,  247. 


Keeping  a  house  in  repair,  258. 
Key  of  plastering,  9. 
Kitchen  floors,  222. 
Kitchen  sink,  110. 
Kitchen  stoves,  34. 


Lacquering,  197. 
Laths,  3. 

Laundry  wash-trays,  113. 
Leaks  in  gas-fixtures,  191. 
Leaky  roofs,  16. 
Linseed  oil,  237. 
Local  vent,  129. 

M 

Main  traps,  103. 
Maple  floors,  217. 
Marble  slabs,  171. 
Mildewing  of  paint,  235. 

N 

Needle-baths,  120. 
Nickel-plating,  134. 


Oak  floors,  218. 
Oil-finish  paint,  232. 
Outside  painting,  234. 
Overflow  of  drain,  95. 
Overflowing  cesspool,  91 
Overflows,  151. 


Paint,  china  gloss,  232. 
Paint,  defects  in,  252. 
Paint,  discoloration  of,  232. 
Paint,  enamel,  231. 
Paint,  flatted,  232. 
Paint,  oil-finish,  232. 
Painted  finish,  230. 
Painted  floors,  215. 
Painting  plastered  walls.  240. 
Pantry  sink,  111. 
Papered  ceilings,  245. 
Paste  for  wall-papers,  249. 
Peppermint  test,  145. 
Pine  floors,  209. 
Pipes,  133. 
Pitch  of  roofs,  14. 
Plastered  walls,  painting,  240. 
Plastering,  bulged,  10. 
Plastering,  defects  in,  9. 
Plate  glass,  256. 
Plumbing,  92. 
Poisonous  colors,  247. 
Polarization  of  battery,  205. 
Potash  treatment,  109. 

R 

Rafters,  3. 

Rats,  93. 

Rattling  windows,  273. 

Ready -mixed  paints,  238. 

Registers,  66. 


282 


THE   CARE   OF  A  HOUSE 


Relief  pipes,  87. 
Repairs  of  roofs,  17. 
Replating,  179. 
Roofs,  13. 

Roofs,  composition,  15. 
Roofs,  flat,  14. 
Roofs,  pitch  of,  14. 
Roofs,  repairs  of,  17. 
Roofs,  shingle,  14. 
Roofs,  slate,  13. 
Roofs,  tile,  13. 
Round  traps,  131. 


Sashes,  254. 
Sash-fasts,  273. 
Secondary  circulation,  137. 
Setting  glass,  265. 
Settlements,  6. 
Sewage  pump,  96. 
Sewer-gas,  92. 
Sewer-traps,  105. 
Sewers,  93. 
Shaking  a  furnace,  62. 
Sheet-glass,  256. 
Shingle  roofs,  14. 
Short-circuits,  203. 
Short  hoppers,  121. 
Shower-baths,  120. 
Shrinkage,  7. 
Shutting  off  water,  157. 
Single-pipe  steam  heating,  84. 
Sinks,  110. 
Siphon-closets,  124. 
Siphon  tank,  101. 
Size  colors,  240. 
Slate  roofs,  13. 
Smoky  fireplaces,  26. 
Smyth  grate,  62. 
Soapstone  and  slate,  167. 
Spruce  floors,  210. 


Staining  floors,  210. 

Stains,  239. 

Stains  in  floors,  225. 

Standing  finish,  229. 

Starting  up  the  fire,  63. 

Steam  and  hot- water  heating,  74 

Stippling,  243. 

Stoves  and  furnaces,  28. 

Stoves,  kitchen,  34. 

Structural  diseases,  6. 

Studs,  2. 

Subsoil  irrigation,  97. 


Testing  for  arsenic,  248. 
Testing  for  short-circuits,  203. 
Testing  with  peppermint,  145, 
Tile  roofs,  13. 
Tilting-tank,  101. 
Timbers,  weakness  of,  8. 
Tin-lined  pipes,  134. 
Traps,  130. 
Traps,  cleaning,  106. 
Traps,  main,  103. 
Traps  of  fixtures,  109. 
Troubles  with  plumbing,  139 


Varnish,  240. 

Vitreous  china,  127,  165. 

W 

Wall-papers,  243. 
Wash-basins,  115,  169. 
Wash-boilers,  115. 
Wash-down  closets,  123. 
Washers,  putting  on,  157. 
Washing  paint,  251. 
Washout  closets,  128. 


INDEX 


283 


Wash-trays,  113. 
Water-closet  cisterns,  130. 
Water-closets,  121,  171. 
Water-front,  36. 
Water-hammer,  154. 
Waxing  floors,  219. 


Weakness  of  timbers,  8. 
White  lead,  234. 
Window  cords,  269. 
Window  sashes,  254. 
Wooden  houses,  2. 
Woodwork,  care  of,  208. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
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JAN     2   1948 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


